Abstract
Arguments that dominated the 2016 referendum campaign have roots that go right back to the post-war years. Winston Churchill was the first to call for a United States of Europe—but without Britain. British reservations about European unification took on a sharper profile as six continental states moved closer to founding the EEC. Concerns about a loss of sovereignty, of national independence, and of a trade policy that offers optimum advantages were first voiced in 1961—together with an explicit refusal to subordinate the national polity to any foreign authority. That was the year in which the United Kingdom submitted its first application to join the EEC. An almost blind confidence in the wisdom of the people as opposed to elites and experts surfaces at the same time. It paved the way for subsequent referenda. When Britain finally joined, it did so under unfavourable auspices. The EEC had created facts that ran counter to fundamental British interests, and the United Kingdom was on the threshold of a major economic upheaval, reinforced by the first oil crisis.
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Notes
- 1.
India became independent on 15 August 1947. Almost 100,000 Indian soldiers died in the course of the Second World War.
- 2.
The self-perception of the English (not comprising Scots or Welsh, and certainly not the Irish) as the ‘finest race on earth’ is a recurrent topos of political rhetoric in Westminster. The last person in recent times to invoke this concept was Tony Blair.
- 3.
At the end of WWII, the British Navy had almost a 1000 vessels. The British merchant fleet accounted for more than a third of global tonnage in 1939. By 1945, the UK had lost almost half of these ships. By 1945, the USA had overtaken both the British Navy and the British merchant fleet in number of vessels and in tonnage.
- 4.
Churchill wrote on 15 February 1930 in The Saturday Evening Post (USA): “The conception of the United States of Europe is right…We see nothing but good and hope in a richer, freer, more contented European commonalty. But we have our own dream and our own task; we are with Europe, but not of it. We are linked but not comprised. We are interested and associated but not absorbed” (https://winstonchurchill.org/publications/finest-hour/finest-hour-104/wit-and-wisdom-12/, 6 March 2019).
- 5.
Robert Schuman said: “Without Great Britain there can be no Europe!”.
- 6.
Linguistic nuances may possibly have played a role in this misunderstanding. In English, to accept something in principle means to give a firm and irrevocable commitment. In French, accepter quelque chose en principe is a direct literal translation, but means to remain open for further discussion without any obligation.
- 7.
Clement Attlee said in the House of Commons: “We could not accept … the principle that the most vital economic forces of this country should be handed over to an authority which is not responsible to Governments.” (Hansard 477, col. 472, 5 July 1952, https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1950/jul/05/schuman-plan-ministers-speech#S5CV0477P0_19500705_HOC_220, 7 March 2019).
- 8.
These historical differences go even deeper. Apart from France, Spain, Portugal and Sweden, practically all political units on the Continent had been creations of the post-Napoleonic era. Many countries had only originated at the end of the First World War. Norway gained independence in 1905. Germany had unstable borders throughout most of its history and found its final geographic and political shape only in 1991.
- 9.
Later Earl of Kilmuir. Some 15 years later, he was one the prominent lawyers warning that joining the EEC might be irreconcilable with the British concept of national sovereignty. Churchill had already sketched the outlines of the Council of Europe in his Zurich speech.
- 10.
The Council of Europe and the European Court of Human Rights form a certain exception in this group, since judgments of the ECHR have immediate legal force in each member country. It was primarily Churchill who hoped to use the ECHR to pillory human rights abuses in the communist countries in Eastern Europe and thus put pressure on their regimes. He could never have dreamed that, some 50 years later, this Court would pass a steadily increasing number of judgments against his own country, the heartland of the rule of law.
- 11.
There is little doubt that Deniau dramatised these words, if he did not invent them. The son of Russell Bretherton has denied that his father ever uttered such words. On the contrary, he maintains his father cabled back to London: “We have in fact the power to guide the conclusions of this conference to almost any direction we like, but we cannot exercise that power without ourselves becoming responsible for the results.” With hindsight, Bretherton is reported to have remarked: “If we had been able to say that we agreed in principle, we could have got whatever kind of Common Market we wanted.” But even if Bretherton never uttered these words, they describe accurately the attitude of Whitehall in this matter: se non è vero, è ben trovato. This is why these words have been quoted again and again.
- 12.
These overseas possessions and dependencies today include: Akrotiri and Dhekelia on Cyprus, Anguilla, Bermuda, the British Antarctic Territory, the British Indian Ocean Territory (Diego Garcia), the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Montserrat, Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and the Turks and Caicos Islands.
- 13.
In 1963 after de Gaulle had vetoed Britain’s application to join the EEC (Until 1991 it was the EEC. The Treaty of Maastricht converted the EEC into the EU), Harold Macmillan wrote in his diary: “The great question remains: ‘What is the alternative?’ to the EEC. If we are honest, we must say there is none.”
- 14.
Organisation for Economic Development and Cooperation, founded in 1948 as OEEC (Organisation for European Economic Cooperation), and designed to serve as an instrument to implement the Marshall Plan assistance coming from the USA and from Canada. It initially comprised 18 western European countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and United Kingdom). In 1961, Canada and the USA joined, and it changed its name to its present form.
- 15.
Note that the Republic of Ireland was neither a member of the EEC nor EFTA. It had applied to join the EEC in 1961, but was refused together with the United Kingdom. It kept away from EFTA.
- 16.
The enduring power of this figure of thought is illustrated in a 1990 interview by Nicholas Ridley, Secretary of State for Trade and Industry under Margaret Thatcher, and one of her close confidants. He openly declared: “It is all a German racket designed to take over the whole of Europe.” (Spectator, 14 July 1990: http://fc95d419f4478b3b6e5f-3f71d0fe2b653c4f00f32175760e96e7.r87.cf1.rackcdn.com/ADF066927DB5403D9B70493E2B465BFF.pdf, 12 March 2018). Vote Leave made an appeal to similar sentiments, circulating a picture taken of British soldiers in the trenches during the Great War and commenting: “So, are your telling us that 100 years from now, our descendants are just going to hand Britain over to the Germans without lifting a finger???” (Vote Leave: https://t.co/bKpUNmCxPw, 21 March 2018). See also Fintan O’Toole: Heroic Failure, London Head of Zeus (2018), pp. 55–62.
- 17.
Nigel Lawson, previously Chancellor of the Exchequer under Margaret Thatcher and later a leading spirit in the Leave campaign, openly called for Ireland to revert to British rule: “I would be very happy if the Republic of Ireland…were to say we made a mistake in getting independence in 1922 and come back within the United Kingdom. That would be great.”—a remarkable flight of fantasy of a prominent Tory who in 2016 became a leading protagonist for Leave. (https://www.newstalk.com/news/lord-nigel-lawson-hopes-irish-republic-realises-its-mistake-and-rejoins-uk-following-brexit-612949, 8 March 2019).
- 18.
George Ball, then Under Secretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs, remarked to President Kennedy that the British government was looking upon the EEC exclusively from the point of profitability. [Michael Charlton: The Price of Victory (London BBC, 1983) p. 265]. Other contemporaries quoted gloatingly Napoleon, who had called the English une nation des boutiquiers (a nation of shopkeepers).
- 19.
The truth is that the Commission classified and graded the quality of bananas and thereby also ruled that abnormal shapes should fall into a category of its own.
- 20.
At the same time, Macmillan was negotiating with the USA about cooperation on the nuclear deterrent. The deal that was to emerge provided US-made Polaris missiles for British-made nuclear warheads on British-made nuclear submarines. The United Kingdom had failed to develop reliable submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBM) of its own.
- 21.
France was to grant independence to Algeria in 1962. It was her last important colony (in fact, more than a colony; Algeria was considered part of la France une et indivisible. This marked the fundamental difference to 1950. At that time, France still believed in keeping its vast Empire and to incorporate the colonies into future overarching European institutions. As a French territory, Algeria was part of the EEC from the EEC’s foundation in 1957 until its national independence in 1962. Thus, Algeria was the first territory to leave the EEC. France managed to integrate its remaining départments d’outre-mer (like Réunion, Guadeloupe, Guyana française, and Martinique) and territoires d’outre-mer (since 2003: collecitivités d’outre-mer like St. Pierre et Miquelon, St. Martin, and Polynésie française) into the EU.
- 22.
France pursued the ‘policy of the empty chair’ from 31 July 1965 to 30 January 1966. Without France present, the EEC Council was incapable of taking any decisions.
- 23.
Luxembourg compromise of 29 January 1966.
- 24.
A Lord remarked during the accession negotiations: “You do not haggle over the subscription when you are invited into a lifeboat!”
- 25.
Norway held a referendum on 24/25 September 1972. The turnout was 79.2%: 53.5% voted No and refused EEC membership (quotum 43%). Norway had been repulsed twice before together with the United Kingdom (1962 and 1967). After the fall of the Iron Curtain, Norway made another attempt to join the EEC, this time together with Sweden, Finland and Austria. In another referendum held on 28 November 1994, 52.2% of voters again rejected this proposal (turnout 88.8%; quotum of No-votes 46.4%). Two factors were presumably responsible for this negative vote: the controversial record of the CFP, which could put at risk some traditional fishing communities on Norway’s Atlantic coast, and the high revenue accruing from oil and gas production which would have translated into exorbitant Norwegian contributions to the EEC budget.
- 26.
Some revealing comments made by some prominent people in those days can be found in Fintan O’Toole: Heroic Failure, London Head of Zeus (2018), pp. 10–18.
- 27.
Tony Benn was born Anthony Wedgwood Benn, Viscount Stansgate. Benn had renounced all claims to inherited titles in 1953 in order to continue his political career in the House of Commons. Benn occupied various posts as cabinet member (Technology, Industry, Energy). He was in practically all points an implacable opponent of Enoch Powell. Their opposition to EEC membership joined them, however, in a common fight. Powell was a national-conservative Tory, a gnarling, outspoken and controversial radical. He served as Minister of Health from 1960 to 1963. After Britain joined the EEC, he left the Conservative Party and supported the Ulster Unionists. In 1974, he publicly exhorted voters to vote Labour in order to reverse EEC membership. Despite his eccentric views and his even more eccentric manners he enjoyed strong support. In some ways, he was not unlike Jacob Rees-Mogg, who rose to prominence in the ranks of the Conservatives after 2016. Powell and Benn were on opposite extremes of the political spectrum but when it came to the EEC, they were singing from the same page.
- 28.
Enoch Powell gave a speech in Birmingham on 20 April 1968 that instantly became notorious as his ‘rivers of blood speech’. In it, he warned against a rising tide of immigrants. (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/3643823/Enoch-Powells-Rivers-of-Blood-speech.html, 23 March 2018).
- 29.
His wife Mary later admitted that she had voted against EEC membership.
- 30.
Roy Jenkins later became the first and only British President of the Commission in Brussels.
- 31.
Margaret Thatcher had campaigned for a Yes vote for the accession treaty in Parliament. In February 1975, she appeared together with Edward Heath (who she had just unseated as leader of the Tories) in a pro-EEC campaign. On this occasion, she said: “[Reasons] for Britain staying in the Community: First, the Community gives us peace and security in a free society, the peace and security denied to the past two generations. Second, the Community gives us access to secure sources of food supplies, and this is vital to us, a country which has to import half of what we need. Third, the Community does more trade and gives more aid than any other group in the world. Fourth, the Community gives us the opportunity to represent the Commonwealth in Europe, a Commonwealth which wants us to stay in and has said so, and the Community wants us to stay in and has shown it to be so.” (Vernon Bogdanor: Lecture Gresham College 15 April 2014: The Referendum on Europe 1975; http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/the-referendum-on-europe-1975, 21 March 2018).
- 32.
A total of 60.5% turned out to vote, 68.3% voted Yes. The quotum of Yes-votes was 41.3%.
- 33.
64.64% of those eligible to vote participated. Of those, 67.23% voted Yes, a quotum of 43.44%.
- 34.
The House of Commons approved the results of Wilson’s renegotiations on 9 April 1975 by 396:170 votes. Only after this vote was legislation passed to enable the holding of a referendum.
- 35.
She had probably taken a leaf out of French diplomacy, which had successfully paralysed all decision-making in Brussels by its policy of the ‘empty chair’. Thatcher vetoed a number of decisions.
- 36.
The wording is revealing. Without much reflection, Thatcher demanded her money back just as if payments and flow-backs had to balance. It never crossed her mind that she could not demand a juste retour on her contributions just as taxpayers cannot demand to receive services and goods in return that are equivalent to their taxes. But Thatcher’s words reverberated, and left an indelible stamp on the thoughts of her compatriots. It later formed the basis of the slogan of Vote Leave to rededicate the £350 million allegedly squandered weekly on EU contributions to the needs of the ailing NHS.
- 37.
Thatcher came under almost unanimous pressure from her cabinet colleagues—most prominently among them her then Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nigel Lawson—to align the pound with the ERM, and thereby with the deutschmark. Lawson resigned in order to increase pressure on the Prime Minister. John Major, who was to succeed her within months, pushed in the same direction. The United Kingdom joined the ERM on 9 October 1990, although at an unsustainable exchange rate. It is an irony of history that Nigel Lawson, who in 1990 was such an ardent proponent of joining the ERM and European integration, has become one of the most vociferous and radical Leavers.
- 38.
Another famous quote concerning Europe was: “I want Britain to punch its weight in the European Community.” (https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/john_major_464688, 19 January 2019).
- 39.
Major fumed when he learned that Chancellor Kohl had proclaimed on 3 April 1992: “In Maastricht we have laid the foundations for the completion of the European Union. This Treaty opens a new, decisive phase in the unification of Europe. In a few years we will have achieved what the founding fathers of modern Europe dreamed of: The United States of Europe!” (His original German text was as follows: “In Maastricht haben wir den Grundstein für die Vollendung der Europäischen Union gelegt. Der Vertrag über die Europäische Union leitet eine neue, entscheidende Etappe des Europäischen Einigungswerks ein, die in wenigen Jahren dazu führen wird, was die Gründungsväter des modernen Europa erträumt haben: Die Vereinigten Staaten von Europa.”) Such language added fuel to the fire of all those who had misgivings about European federalism. If the United Kingdom had a reputation for headstrong egotism in Brussels, it is equally true that both Germany and France showed little understanding and less respect for British sensitivities.
- 40.
The term eurosceptic is commonly used in the UK. However, it is misleading. It implies either criticism directed against monetary union or it implies scepticism towards the principle idea and the entire project of European integration. The first is too narrow, the second too wide. Therefore it should be termed EU-scepticism to convey the exact nature of this scepticism.
- 41.
The referendum in Ireland was held on 18 June 1992. The result was a clear majority of 69.1% for Maastricht (turnout 57.3%, quotum 39.5%). President Mitterrand had the French people vote on 20 September 1992. He received an approval rate of 51% (turnout 59.7%, quotum of approval 35.5%). In Denmark, 50.7% of voters rejected the Treaty on 2 June 1992 (turnout 83.1%, quotum of negative votes: 42.1%). Denmark then negotiated several national opt-outs concerning a common currency and defence, and the Treaty thus modified received a Yes-vote of 56.7% Yes (turnout 86.5%, quotum 49%) on 18 May 1993.
- 42.
The words chosen on that occasion (‘at any cost’) bear a striking similarity to the famous words of Mario Draghi on 26 July 2012 when he committed the ECB to do ‘whatever it takes’ to defend the euro.
- 43.
Above all, it was Germany that prevented a softening of the rules of the ERM. Because of huge government expenditure for German unification, it had a vital interest in low interest rates and it was equally opposed to a revaluation of the deutschmark. If the margins of fluctuation had been widened earlier, Black Wednesday would not have assumed such catastrophic dimensions. Sooner or later the exchange rate of the pound would have had to be realigned. But it could have been done in a more controlled way.
- 44.
Nicholas Ridley had denounced the EU as German domination in disguise in 1990 (The Spectator, 14 July 1990: http://fc95d419f4478b3b6e5f-3f71d0fe2b653c4f00f32175760e96e7.r87.cf1.rackcdn.com/ADF066927DB5403D9B70493E2B465BFF.pdf, 12 March 2018). This view reverberates until today. Many striking examples in Fintan O’Toole: Heroic Failure, London Head of Zeus (2018), pp. 47–62.
- 45.
The Economist argued in an almost prophetic way. The massive crisis of public debt was not foreseeable then but the Economist pointed to the probability, even inevitability of such developments.
- 46.
Three Baltic states, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Malta and Cyprus.
- 47.
Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act III, Scene I.
- 48.
Financial transfers to Northern Ireland from the EU account for 8% of the GNP of Northern Ireland.
- 49.
The acronym PIGS was no compliment. It stood for Portugal, Ireland (or Italy) Greece and Spain.
- 50.
The potential exit of Greece from the Eurozone, and potentially from the EU.
- 51.
The official residence of the Prime Minister is at 10 Downing Street, which is just one part of a jumble of interlinked townhouses and office buildings. The complex also houses the Prime Minister’s office and closest advisers. The Cabinet meets at Number 10.
- 52.
On 20 April 2004, Blair said that the House of Commons should debate the constitutional treaty at length, but then “… let the people have the final say”. Labour’s manifesto for the 2005 general election contained the following words: “We will put the constitution to the British people in a referendum and campaign wholeheartedly for a Yes vote.”(http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/politics/domestic_politics/factcheck+did+blair+promise+euro+referendum/558277.html, 22 February 2018).
- 53.
But that was exactly what Harold Wilson had done in 1975.
- 54.
The first referendum on 12 June 2008 yielded a majority against the Treaty of Lisbon (53.2% No, with a turnout of 53.1%; quotum 28.25%). Less than 16 months later, Ireland repeated the referendum with only cosmetic changes to the otherwise unaltered treaty. On 2 October 2009, 67.1% voters returned a Yes vote (turnout 59%; quotum 39.6%). It was the third time that a referendum that had ended in a negative vote for the EU, had been overridden by a second referendum on the same question (Denmark 1992/3 on the Treaty of Maastricht, Ireland 2001/2 on the Treaty of Nice and then again 2008/9 on the Treaty of Lisbon).
- 55.
Some heightened the drama of their arguments by making puns about destination and destiny.
- 56.
The electoral victory appears much bigger than it was in reality. Members of the European Parliament are elected in the United Kingdom according to proportional voting along party lists. Turnout was extremely low (34.5%). UKIP received 920,000 votes in the 2010 general election, but because of a much higher turnout this absolute number was equivalent only to 3.1% of the vote. The different voting system (first past the post) resulted in no seats for UKIP in Westminster, whereas they had thirteen seats in Brussels. UKIP later secured two seats in Westminster, but they were defectors from the Conservatives who had won their constituencies on the Tory ticket and only kept them in the re-election under the UKIP banner.
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Adam, R.G. (2020). With Europe, But Not of Europe. In: Brexit. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22225-3_1
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