Abstract
Seed exchange is a multidimensional issue with social, political, economic, and agricultural implications. There is a growing concern about the increase of the food system’s vulnerability as a result of loss of agricultural biodiversity. Farmers’ ability to replant, exchange, and distribute saved seed is a way to minimize their dependence on commercial suppliers and thereby maintain control over farming practices. Seed saving is also crucial for conservation because the process of choosing, replanting, and exchanging seeds relies on and increases diversity on the farm and in communities. Seed exchange networks, formal and informal ways that farmers engage alongside institutional plant breeding systems, help to conserve agricultural, social, and cultural diversity and identity as well as enhance resilience against environmental and economic shocks. However, how to build resilient seed systems and move from the innovative but relatively isolated project activities of professionals and farmers to a situation where such approaches are scaled up and networked alongside formal and informal, national and international plant breeding mechanism are a concern. This paper examines grassroots seed exchange through seed libraries, the marketing of new varieties through seed companies, and hybrid civil society-business models to understand their financial and technical abilities as well as challenges they face. Seed exchange networks fulfill an important role in conservation of agricultural biodiversity and building community resilience through their work on breeding, exchange, and propagation of regionally adapted open-pollinated seeds as well as advocacy on seed sovereignty and education on seed saving.
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In 1996, High Mowing Organic Seeds, Wolcott, VT, a private company specializing in providing organic, locally adaptable, and non-GE seeds to revive local and sustainable food systems, received the seeds of Roy Calais flint corn from two local farmers who still kept seeds (HMOS 2011). High Mowing Organic Seeds crossed all of the inbred strains, and reintroduced it. Following this initiative, Fedco Seeds, a seed company operating in Clinton, ME, carried out taste evaluations and added an improved variety of Roy Calais flint corn, Abenaki flint corn, to its seed catalog (Slow Food USA 2015).
Several studies discuss direct farmer-to-farmer seed exchanges and their impact on food security, resilience, farmers’ livelihoods, and genetic diversity. For research in the USA, see Campbell (2012) for a study of farmer-to-farmer seed exchanges in Ozarks in Arkansas, and Veteto (2014) and Best (2013) for such exchanges in southern and central Appalachia. There is a growing scholarly literature on global cases as well: Fuentes et al. (2012) discuss the impacts of farmer seed exchanges on quinoa genetic diversity in Chile. Calvet-Mir et al. (2012) discuss significance of seed exchange among home gardeners for agrobiodiversity conservation in Catalan Pyrenees, Iberian Peninsula. Whereas da Via (2012) discusses how the exchange of locally adapted seeds has become a focal site of grassroots organizing in the rural areas of Europe, Pautasso et al. (2013) presents a general review.
Although the first National Organic Program (NOP) proposed in 1997 did not prohibit GE organisms in organic agriculture, the second NOP in 2000 excluded the use of GE organisms in certified organic production and handling However, at present, there is no policy regarding the unintended (adventititious) presence of GE material in organic products or food, “consistent with the fact that organic production is process-based and not product-based” (Ronald and Fouche 2006).
Corn, cotton, and soybeans make up the majority of the acres planted to GE crops in the USA and the majority of field releases approved by USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. However, GE vegetable seeds such as potatoes, tomatoes, and squash are also commercially available in the markets (Fernandez-Cornejo et al. 2014).
Recent findings about the expansion of GE agriculture and its impacts, particularly western corn rootworms in the USA, developing resistance to the natural pesticide in Bt corn align with the reports of field-evolved resistance for some of the 5 of 13 major pest species globally, such as cotton ballworm resistance to Bt cotton in China (Gassmann et al. 2011; Tabashnik et al. 2011).
The coordinator of the national network is Rebecca Newburn, who is a permaculturalist and math and science educator, and a member of a transition town initiative in Richmond, CA. The transition initiative is a global movement that aims to build resilient communities through local projects such as food, transport, energy, education, housing, waste, and arts to address the global challenges of climate change, economic hardship, and shrinking supplies of cheap energy (Transition Network 2009). Established in 2010, the Richmond Grows Seed Library’s model provided a framework that could be replicated, which was crucial in the expansion of seed libraries in the USA (Conner 2014).
In one of the sessions on regulatory challenges, Neil Thapar from Sustainable Economies Law Center provided updates on the “Save Seed Sharing” National Petition Campaign, whereas Neil Hamilton from Drake Law School, IA, discussed the legal context that could prevent public exchange of seeds. For more videos of the International Seed Library, see Pima County Public Library (2015).
For instance, some of High Mowing Organic Seeds’ salad lettuce varieties are grown by an organic farmer and plant breeder, Frank Morton, who owns Wild Garden Seeds in Oregon (HMOS 2015b). Tested to become resilient under low-input agriculture conditions, these lettuce varieties also integrate color, texture, and taste so that they could be “hearty enough to be shipped cross-country in unrefrigerated UPS trucks for 48 h, but also beautiful and flavorful enough to be served at the finest restaurants” (Seed Matters 2015)
In 2013, SSE grew 1115 heritage varieties of 40 different crops, added 350 varieties to orchards, and grafted 1462 new apple trees in Heritage Farm. M-GEN provided access to the home gardens of 74 members from Alaska to Florida who grew and documented 15 varieties of bean, corn lettuce, mustard, pepper, and tomato (SSE 2013).
In 2013 alone, over 200 people participated in SSE’s seed saving workshops, 15,000 people visited the Heritage Farm, 500 people attended heirloom apple tasting event and annual conference and campout (SSE 2013).
Seed Bank in Fort Collins, CO, is federally owned. It serves for the preservation and protection of plant biodiversity and as a backup location for all other national genetics collection locations in the USA. It provides seeds for research and educational purposes worldwide. Not only Seeds Savers Exchange but also private companies such as Monsanto and Dupont can also store their seeds in its vaults (NPR 2013b). While USDA Seed Bank in Fort Collins and Svalbard are autonomous entities, the off-site deposits of the SSE remain its property (SSE 2014c)
There exist other Native American groups working on food and seed sovereignty. Traditional Native American Farmers’ Association and New Mexico Acequía Association formed New Mexico Food and Seed Sovereignty Alliance (NMFSA) and have organized national workshops and conferences since 2006; NMFSSA also passed Seed Sovereignty Declaration and was successful in introducing a State Joint Legislature in New Mexico that recognized “the importance of indigenous agricultural and native seeds to the food security of New Mexico as well as recognizing farmers’ rights to keep their seeds free from genetic engineering contamination” (NMFSSA 2014). In 2013, a new organization, Native American Food Sovereignty Alliance, was formed, which aims to become a sustainable movement “that is Native American driven and controlled, nationally active and dedicated to addressing food security, hunger and nutrition in Native American communities at the national, tribal and local levels” (NAFSA 2014).
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Sheri Breen, Lissy Goralnik, Kimberly Smith, Matthew Dillon and Tom Wolcott for providing valuable comments over the course of this project. My gratitude extends to Skidmore College Environmental Studies students, Helen Alemayehu Mebrate, Lauren Bosche and Tsering Choden, who served as research assistants in Summer 2014. This project was funded by Skidmore College. Two anonymous reviewers provided critical feedback, which strengthened the manuscript considerably. Results were presented at the annual conference of the Association of Environmental Studies and Sciences in June 2014. I also would like to thank Gerry Marten, the editor of this special issue, for his encouragement and feedback.
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Helicke, N.A. Seed exchange networks and food system resilience in the United States. J Environ Stud Sci 5, 636–649 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-015-0346-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-015-0346-5