Introduction

Temple architecture captures the cultural, spiritual, and artistic essence of civilizations, representing values, beliefs, and customs across regions and eras. These structures, from Southeast Asia’s towering pagodas to the intricately carved stone temples of South Asia and Japan’s harmonious Shinto shrines, each carry unique architectural elements shaped by climate, resources, and religious symbolism. South Asian temples showcase detailed carvings and grand spires, while Japanese pagodas emphasize simplicity, verticality, and integration with nature1. However, the survival of these cultural icons is threatened by natural degradation, climate change, and unregulated human activity. Preserving them is essential to retain a tangible link to history for future generations. Physical preservation poses challenges as traditional materials like stone and wood erode over time. Climate change intensifies these risks, with extreme weather events causing damage that can be irreversible. Human interference, particularly through tourism and urban encroachment, further strains preservation efforts, while modern pollution accelerates the breakdown of centuries-old structures. Restoration work, often costly and requiring specialized skills, is complex, underscoring the need for alternative preservation methods. Digital technology offers promising solutions. High-definition imaging, 3D scanning, virtual reality (VR), and augmented reality (AR) enable the accurate documentation and digital replication of temple architecture2. 3D scanning creates detailed models of temples, preserving every carving and structural element, which can be used for future restoration and global educational access. VR and AR facilitate interactive engagement, offering immersive experiences that allow individuals to explore temples virtually, minimizing physical impact on these heritage sites. Metaverse expands on these possibilities by creating immersive, interactive worlds. Unlike traditional VR, metaverse allows users to share virtual space, facilitating collective engagement with temple architecture3,4,5. Here, users can enter digital versions of temples like Angkor Wat of Cambodia or the Brihadeeswarar Temple of India, explore their grounds, observe intricate carvings up close, and even witness virtual reconstructions of historical rituals. This experience fosters a deeper connection and understanding of cultural nuances that might be missed in physical or museum settings. Metaverse also allows for the digital reconstruction of lost or altered temples, using historical data and advanced modeling to virtually restore these structures as they once stood, broadening possibilities beyond physical restoration6.

Moreover, metaverse provides a platform for collaborative preservation, enabling historians, architects, and local communities to contribute insights and create culturally respectful representations. In education, metaverse offers immersive learning opportunities where students can engage with temple architecture in its historical, social, and religious contexts7. Virtual guides can offer explanations of architectural styles and symbols, making history come alive beyond the limitations of books or lectures. By transcending geographical barriers, metaverse increases accessibility to cultural heritage, offering inclusive experiences to diverse audiences, including those unable to visit these temples in person. In this context, digital preservation through metaverse emerges as an innovative approach to protect, experience, and educate about these architectural wonders. However, limited research exists on how temple architecture can be effectively digitized and the impact of virtual preservation on cultural conservation and public engagement. This study seeks to examine the role of metaverse in preserving temple architecture, create accurate digital models of selected temples, assess the educational value of virtual temple experiences, and identify both technical and cultural challenges associated with metaverse-based heritage preservation.

Background

The field of digital preservation has undergone a transformation with the advent of 3D scanning, VR, drones, blockchain, and the expanding possibilities within metaverse. These technologies collectively enable the capture, preservation, and presentation of cultural heritage in ways previously unimaginable. Recent research trends indicate a growing interest in metaverse-based heritage preservation, with studies focusing on improving interactivity, accessibility, and data integrity8. However, while these technologies offer new possibilities, challenges such as technological limitations, ethical concerns, and the need for cultural sensitivity remain key areas for further research2. One of the most significant advancements in digital heritage preservation is high-resolution 3D scanning, which allows for the precise documentation of intricate architectural and artistic details. Current studies emphasize the development of LiDAR, photogrammetry, and AI-enhanced modeling techniques to improve the accuracy of digital twins of heritage sites9,10. These digital models not only serve as a conservation tool but also enable researchers, educators, and the public to engage with heritage artifacts remotely. However, limitations such as data storage requirements, processing complexity, and the need for standardization in digital heritage formats pose challenges to widespread adoption11,12.

VR has emerged as a powerful tool for interactive heritage exploration, providing users with immersive experiences that replicate historical sites and artifacts. Recent research focuses on enhancing user experience (UX) design in VR-based heritage applications, ensuring that virtual reconstructions are both educational and engaging13. Studies also explore multisensory simulations, incorporating elements such as soundscapes, atmospheric lighting, and haptic feedback to create a more realistic and emotionally engaging experience14. However, research gaps persist in evaluating the long-term impact of VR-based learning in heritage education and addressing issues related to hardware accessibility and cost. Drones are also increasingly being employed for heritage site mapping and conservation monitoring, allowing for efficient documentation of hard-to-reach historical locations. Research trends highlight the use of drone-based photogrammetry and LiDAR scanning to create accurate 3D models of cultural landmarks15. Moreover, studies explore AI-driven drone imaging to automate data collection and improve conservation efforts16. However, challenges such as regulatory restrictions, weather dependencies, and the need for specialized expertise continue to limit the scalability of drone-based heritage preservation. In terms of using Blockchain technology, it is being investigated for its potential to secure and authenticate digital heritage records. Research in this area is focused on developing decentralized databases and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) to ensure the immutability and traceability of digital heritage assets17,18. These approaches aim to protect cultural artifacts from digital forgery and unauthorized modifications19. However, technical barriers, environmental concerns regarding blockchain energy consumption, and the lack of universally accepted standards pose significant challenges to its large-scale implementation in heritage preservation.

Metaverse, a vast collective virtual realm where users can interact within immersive, shared environments, has extended its reach beyond its initial applications in gaming and entertainment to sectors like education, healthcare, and even workplace collaboration20. Recent studies highlight the potential of metaverse in education, cultural tourism, and interactive heritage engagement, allowing users to explore historical reconstructions in real-time with others across the globe. However, research into the application of the metaverse for religious and sacred heritage sites remains limited. Temples and other spiritually significant structures require a nuanced approach to ensure that their cultural, historical, and religious contexts are accurately represented within virtual spaces. Preserving these sacred sites digitally involves not only capturing architectural details but also integrating symbolic meanings, rituals, and spiritual elements that define their significance21.

Despite the advancements in digital heritage preservation, several challenges must be addressed to ensure sustainable integration of these technologies. One of the primary concerns is the digital divide, as not all institutions and communities have access to the necessary infrastructure to implement immersive heritage technologies3,22. Additionally, ethical considerations such as data ownership, privacy, and cultural representation must be carefully managed to avoid misappropriation or commercialization of sacred heritage. Future research must focus on developing inclusive and sustainable models that ensure long-term accessibility, affordability, and cultural sensitivity in digital heritage preservation23. In the light of this discussion, it is evident that while 3D scanning, VR, drones, blockchain, and metaverse offer groundbreaking opportunities for preserving cultural heritage, their sustainable integration requires addressing technological, ethical, and accessibility challenges. The future of digital heritage conservation will depend on interdisciplinary collaborations between historians, technologists, policymakers, and local communities to ensure that these innovations not only protect cultural legacies but also enhance global engagement and appreciation of heritage in meaningful ways.

Methods

The current study employs a case study research design to explore the virtual reality representations of three prominent temples in Asia – the Zen Temple (Kodaiji) in Japan, the Khmer-style Angkor Wat in Cambodia, and the Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar. The methodology is structured to provide in-depth analysis and comparative insights into the digital preservation of these culturally significant sites. Each temple was selected for its historical, religious, and cultural importance, as well as for its unique architectural style, which enhances understanding of different digitalization approaches in the context of metaverse. Kodaiji is a Zen Buddhist temple exemplifying Japanese Zen architecture, which was selected for its active engagement in creating a virtual reality experience that conveys not only architectural aesthetics but also spiritual ambiance. Angkor Wat is a massive Khmer-style temple complex in Cambodia, representing Hindu-Buddhist architectural fusion. It was selected due to its intricate carvings and expansive layout, which pose both technical and interpretive challenges in VR. Shwedagon Pagoda is a Burmese stupa and an iconic Buddhist pilgrimage site in Myanmar, which was selected to study the role of digitalization in capturing sacred, intangible elements, including ritual practices and symbolism embedded within the pagoda’s structure. Data collected for the study is from secondary sources including historical documents, academic articles, and cultural reports on each temple’s religious practices, history, and significance. These documents were reviewed to contextualize the VR experience within the larger cultural and historical narrative. The study acknowledges limitations in accessing certain VR platforms or high-resolution models and cultural challenges in interpreting sacred spaces digitally. Through this methodological approach, this study aims to provide insights into the effectiveness, challenges, and cultural implications of virtual reality in preserving sacred temple architecture in metaverse. Figure 1 below summarizes the research design of this study.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Research design.

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Case studies

Kodaiji temple, Japan

Heritage profile

Kodaiji, a Zen Buddhist temple established in 1606 in Kyoto, Japan, is renowned for its architectural elegance, historical significance, and cultural heritage. Built in memory of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a prominent 16th century Japanese daimyo, by his wife Nene, the temple is a masterpiece of Momoyama period design. With intricate gardens, a serene lake, traditional wooden halls, and finely crafted stone paths, Kodaiji embodies the Zen principles of simplicity, harmony, and natural beauty. The temple’s cultural treasures include exquisite lacquer work, ancient art pieces, and carefully curated gardens, making it a spiritual and artistic attraction for both locals and international visitors.

Aesthetics and architecture

In terms of its architectural design, Kodaiji is a harmonious blend of Zen aesthetics and Momoyama period elegance, featuring wooden structures, tranquil garden landscapes, and iconic rock arrangements. The temple complex is meticulously organized to guide visitors through different spaces, from the main hall, which houses a revered statue of the seated Buddha, to the scenic gardens and tea houses. The renowned Kaisando Hall, known for its lacquered interiors and golden embellishments, exemplifies Japanese craftsmanship. The gardens, arranged in classical Japanese style with reflective ponds, rocks, and trees, create a serene atmosphere intended to inspire meditation and introspection. Every structural and spatial element of Kodaiji is purposefully designed to reflect Buddhist teachings on mindfulness and the impermanence of life.

Rituality and digital preservation

Recognizing the challenges of engaging younger generations and ensuring continued relevance in the digital age, Kodaiji has embraced cutting-edge technology to preserve its heritage while inviting a modern audience to experience its historical and spiritual richness. Kodaiji has taken an innovative approach to preserve and reinterpret its heritage by incorporating digital technologies, including AR and VR experiences. The temple offers interactive digital displays and has even introduced an AI-powered android resembling a Buddhist monk to give sermons on Zen philosophy and teachings. Through AR, visitors can use smartphones or tablets to see digitally enhanced representations of ancient artifacts and historical narratives, adding layers of educational content to the physical site. Kodaiji’s VR experiences allow people worldwide to tour the temple virtually, replicating the architecture, landscapes, and artwork with high fidelity. This approach enables individuals who cannot physically visit Kodaiji to connect with its spiritual and cultural legacy, and younger generations are especially drawn to these interactive, technology-driven experiences.

Kodaiji’s pioneering digital preservation efforts were developed in collaboration with a team of Japanese technology companies, researchers, and cultural institutions committed to bridging the gap between heritage and modern technology. Among these collaborators, the robotics and AI company A-Lab, part of the Atelier creative group, played a central role in designing and integrating the famous AI Buddhist monk, Mindar, into the temple’s offerings. With this AI monk, Kodaiji aimed to appeal to younger generations by using a futuristic interface to convey Zen teachings and to create a platform for interactive learning in a religious and cultural setting. The creation of Mindar, an AI-powered android monk, was a groundbreaking project that set Kodaiji apart in the global discourse on cultural preservation, as seen in Fig. 2(a-b) below. Mindar was developed as a collaboration between A-Lab and Kodaiji’s temple leaders, who wanted to ensure that Mindar could express Zen teachings authentically. Programmed with Buddhist scriptures and teachings, Mindar’s sermons touch on existential themes central to Zen Buddhism, such as impermanence and mindfulness, and are designed to resonate with contemporary audiences. The android can also engage in interactive question-and-answer sessions, bridging traditional wisdom with the modern curiosity about AI and robotics. Kodaiji collaborated with VR developers and digital artists to create immersive virtual and augmented reality experiences, allowing users to explore the temple remotely. Through these VR applications, developed by Japanese digital studios, people around the world can take virtual tours of the temple grounds and view enhanced representations of ancient artwork and sacred spaces. These experiences were designed to provide highly accurate, 3D-rendered visuals of the temple’s interiors and surroundings, offering users an experience that closely resembles an actual visit. Visitors on-site can also use AR tools to access additional information about temple artifacts and artwork, which adds depth to the physical experience by overlaying historical narratives onto real-world views.

Fig. 2
figure 2

(Source: Screenshots taken from the official website of Kodaiji)24

a and b AI monk Mindar of Kodaiji Temple.

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Authenticity and cultural sensitivity

Recognizing the importance of academic rigor and cultural sensitivity, Kodaiji partnered with local universities and cultural institutions in Kyoto to ensure historical accuracy and maintain a high standard for its digital representation. Experts in Japanese history and Buddhist studies provided detailed input on how best to present the temple’s narrative and significance through digital platforms. These collaborations brought an interdisciplinary approach to the project, combining technical precision with cultural and historical knowledge to ensure the virtual experiences remain respectful and informative. During specific seasons, Kodaiji incorporates digital art projections and light shows that transform its historical architecture into a canvas for modern artistry, as shown in Fig. 3(a-b) below. These shows are carefully designed to honor the temple’s heritage while creating a visually compelling experience for visitors. Digital artists and projection mapping experts worked with Kodaiji to craft these displays, which use subtle lighting and imagery inspired by Zen art to highlight the temple’s architectural features25. These digital art events not only attract new visitors but also deepen the immersive experience of Kodaiji’s space, blending art with tradition in a way that honors its legacy.

Fig. 3
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(Source: Screenshots taken from the official website of Kodaiji)24

a and b Light shows and art projections of Kodaiji Temple.

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The digital representation of Kodaiji has been successful in broadening its appeal and accessibility. The integration of AR and VR has drawn younger visitors, particularly those interested in technology and innovation, creating a bridge between modern audiences and ancient traditions. The AI monk, in particular, has attracted global media attention, sparking conversations about the role of AI in cultural and religious contexts26. By presenting Zen teachings in a relatable, modern format, Kodaiji has not only preserved its heritage but also revitalized interest in Zen Buddhism among a tech-savvy generation. These initiatives have positioned Kodaiji as a leader in digital cultural preservation, demonstrating that traditional institutions can adapt to contemporary interests without compromising their values. Despite its success, Kodaiji’s digital preservation efforts face challenges. There is an inherent risk in balancing technological enhancements with the temple’s sacred atmosphere; overuse of digital elements could detract from the sense of tranquility and authenticity that defines the Zen experience. Additionally, maintaining high-quality digital models and interactive technologies requires substantial resources, including technical expertise and funding, which may be challenging for cultural heritage sites27. Ethical considerations also arise regarding the use of an AI monk for religious teachings, as it raises questions about authenticity, spiritual reverence, and the role of technology in religious practices. Finally, the digital representations, while engaging, cannot fully replicate the multisensory experience of physically visiting Kodaiji and immersing oneself in its serene environment. Through these efforts, Kodaiji continues to uphold its traditions while inviting innovation, serving as a powerful example of how heritage sites can remain relevant in the digital age. The temple’s journey highlights the potential for other cultural sites to harness technology thoughtfully, preserving their legacy for future generations while navigating the delicate balance between modernity and tradition.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia

Heritage profile

Angkor Wat, the renowned temple complex in Siem Reap, Cambodia, is one of the most iconic and largest religious monuments in the world. Originally built in the early 12th century by King Suryavarman II, it was dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu before being converted into a Buddhist temple in the 14th century28. Angkor Wat represents a unique fusion of Hindu and Buddhist architectural styles, attracting millions of visitors each year. Its status as a UNESCO World Heritage site highlights its historical, cultural, and religious importance and underscores the need for its preservation.

Aesthetics and architecture

The architecture of Angkor Wat is distinguished by its grandeur and detailed stone carvings. The temple complex is designed as a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods in Hindu cosmology29,30. It features an elaborate layout with a series of concentric galleries, grand courtyards, and towering spires. The central tower, rising over 60 m, is surrounded by smaller towers and intricate bas-reliefs depicting scenes from Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Angkor Wat’s orientation towards the west, which is unusual for a Hindu temple, may reflect its association with funerary rites or cosmological beliefs31.

Rituality and digital preservation

To preserve Angkor Wat and make it accessible to a global audience, various digital projects have focused on creating immersive, 3D models and virtual environments of the temple. Metaverse allows users to explore the architecture, view intricate carvings, and understand the temple’s spatial and religious significance32. Prominent organizations, including Google Arts & Culture and CyArk, have collaborated on digitizing Angkor Wat, creating virtual tours, and enhancing accessibility to remote visitors, as shown in Fig. 4(a-b) below. These digital representations enable people worldwide to experience Angkor Wat as a living, interactive site while reducing the strain of physical foot traffic that can damage the ancient structures. The digital project also integrates AR experience to enhance the visitor experience on-site. Using AR-enabled devices, visitors can see recreations of Angkor Wat’s original colors, lighting, and decorative elements, helping them visualize the temple as it may have appeared in the 12th century. Additionally, the VR/AR experiences provide historical narratives, context for the temple’s carvings, and details about the ancient Khmer Empire, enriching the educational value for users.

Fig. 4
figure 4

(Source: Screenshots taken from Google Arts)33

a and b Digital representation of Angkor Wat.

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The digital preservation of Angkor Wat has been spearheaded by collaborations between various organizations, notably CyArk, a nonprofit organization specializing in digital preservation, and Google Arts & Culture, a digital platform aimed at making cultural artifacts accessible online. These organizations have used advanced technologies to document, preserve, and share the intricacies of Angkor Wat’s architecture and art with a global audience. CyArk, a leader in the field of 3D digital archiving, initiated the digital preservation project for Angkor Wat in 2011. Using high-resolution laser scanning, photogrammetry, and 3D modeling, CyArk captured precise measurements and visual details of the temple complex. The project created a digital archive that serves as a comprehensive record of Angkor Wat’s structural and artistic features, enabling scholars, archaeologists, and the public to access and study the site without impacting the physical monument, as shown in Fig. 5(a-b) below. The data collected by CyArk allows for highly accurate 3D models and interactive experiences. It has also proven invaluable for conservation work, as the digital models can be used to monitor changes in the temple’s structure over time. For instance, by comparing new scans with CyArk’s initial recordings, preservationists can identify areas of degradation and assess the impacts of natural factors like climate change or human interaction. The preservation project also includes detailed renderings of Angkor Wat’s bas-reliefs, which depict scenes from Hindu epics, thereby safeguarding these artistic works from potential erosion. Google Arts & Culture partnered with CyArk to bring Angkor Wat’s digital preservation into the public domain, creating immersive online exhibits that allow virtual visitors to explore the temple from anywhere in the world. The platform offers high-resolution images, interactive 3D models, and VR experiences that replicate the experience of moving through the temple’s corridors, courtyards, and sanctuaries. Google’s platform includes educational resources that detail the historical and cultural significance of Angkor Wat, making the digital preservation project not only accessible but also deeply informative.

Fig. 5
figure 5

(Source: Screenshots taken from the official website of CyArk)34

a LIDAR data and b 3D image of Angkor Wat.

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Authenticity and cultural sensitivity

The digital preservation and metaverse integration projects for Angkor Wat have been successful in multiple ways. They have increased global awareness of Angkor Wat’s significance, drawing attention to the temple’s history, architecture, and the challenges of preservation. The virtual models and immersive experiences have made Angkor Wat accessible to individuals who may never be able to visit Cambodia. Moreover, the digital representation has become an invaluable tool for scholars, historians, and students, who can now study the temple’s design and iconography in detail without physically interacting with the site. The integration of AR in guiding on-site tours has also improved the educational experience for visitors, enabling a deeper understanding of the site’s cultural and spiritual heritage. While the digital preservation efforts have been impactful, Angkor Wat still faces several preservation challenges. The site is threatened by both natural and human factors. Climate change, including extreme weather events, has accelerated the deterioration of stone structures. Additionally, water management issues and rising groundwater levels are impacting the foundation of the temple35. Human factors, such as increased tourism and unregulated development in the surrounding area, also pose significant threats. The constant flow of visitors can lead to physical wear and tear on the ancient structures, and nearby infrastructure development can affect the site’s integrity. Although digital representations reduce physical interaction, they cannot fully replace the need for ongoing physical preservation. Another challenge in digital preservation involves ensuring authenticity and accuracy. Creating a 3D model that genuinely captures Angkor Wat’s intricate details and conveys its spiritual ambiance requires extensive expertise and careful management of historical data36. Additionally, the complex legal and cultural considerations involved in digitally recreating a sacred site require careful handling to ensure that the digital versions are respectful and culturally accurate. The digital and metaverse projects for Angkor Wat mark a significant step toward preserving and sharing this cultural treasure. These efforts exemplify how digital tools can protect and enhance heritage sites, making them accessible to a broader audience while supporting preservation. However, a balanced approach that combines virtual and physical conservation efforts is essential to ensure that Angkor Wat, a symbol of Cambodia’s history and identity, can be preserved for future generations.

Shwedagon Pagoda, Myanmar

Heritage profile

The Shwedagon Pagoda, located in Yangon, Myanmar, is one of the most revered Buddhist sites globally and the most sacred pagoda in Myanmar. Believed to contain relics of four previous Buddhas, including eight strands of hair from Gautama Buddha, Shwedagon Pagoda holds immense cultural, historical, and religious importance37. Standing majestically on Singuttara Hill, the golden stupa reaches nearly 100 m, shimmering with gold leaf and encrusted with diamonds, rubies, and other precious gems. Its stunning architecture and religious significance draw both pilgrims and tourists, making it a vital cultural landmark for Myanmar.

Aesthetics and architecture

The architecture of the Shwedagon Pagoda is a striking representation of Burmese Buddhist design, characterized by a central stupa surrounded by smaller stupas, shrines, and prayer halls. The stupa itself is gilded with gold leaf and topped with uti, a sacred umbrella structure covered with thousands of diamonds and other precious stones. The pagoda’s base features multiple terraces and platforms where devotees can offer prayers, meditate, and participate in religious rituals. The intricate ornamentation, including sculptures of mythical beings and detailed carvings, reflects centuries of Burmese artistry, while the vibrant gold coating and jewels symbolize spiritual wealth and purity in Buddhism38.

Rituality and digital preservation

In recent years, there has been growing interest in preserving and showcasing Shwedagon Pagoda through digital means, including integration into metaverse platforms. While there is no extensive metaverse representation specifically for Shwedagon Pagoda yet, digital preservation initiatives are emerging. These efforts aim to use 3D modeling, photogrammetry, and VR technologies to document the site’s architecture and cultural elements with high precision. Through these digital representations, the Shwedagon Pagoda could be experienced in virtual reality, allowing users worldwide to explore its features, observe its artistry, and understand its religious significance without physically visiting Myanmar. Such a metaverse integration could offer an immersive experience, bringing users through digital representations of the pagoda’s iconic golden stupa, its sacred relics, and its various temples and shrines. A virtual tour in metaverse could include interactive elements, allowing users to learn about Burmese Buddhist practices, participate in virtual rituals, or explore historical interpretations of the site.

The digital preservation of the Shwedagon Pagoda, while still in the early stages, has seen contributions from several organizations and institutions committed to heritage conservation and digital documentation. Notably, Cultural Heritage Imaging (CHI) and various local Burmese preservation groups have shown interest in creating digital archives of Myanmar’s key cultural sites, including the Shwedagon Pagoda. Additionally, some international partnerships, such as CyArk, have been discussed for potential collaborations to document important Buddhist and ancient heritage sites in the region. While specific large-scale digital preservation projects for Shwedagon Pagoda like those seen with Angkor Wat in Cambodia or Hampi in India have not been fully realized, smaller initiatives have applied technologies such as 3D scanning and photogrammetry to capture details of the pagoda. These techniques involve capturing the site in high-resolution 3D imagery, which can then be used to create virtual models or serve as a digital archive, as seen in Fig. 6(a-b) below. Digital data of this kind is crucial for both restoration purposes in the event of damage or decay and for creating immersive virtual experiences in platforms like metaverse. Additionally, Myanmar’s Ministry of Religious Affairs and Culture has shown interest in modernizing heritage preservation efforts, working with technology providers to pilot digital preservation projects. These efforts highlight the growing recognition of digital tools as essential for heritage conservation, especially as Myanmar faces political and environmental challenges that threaten its cultural landmarks. By securing a digital record of Shwedagon’s intricate details and symbolism, these initiatives not only safeguard it for future generations but also make the pagoda accessible globally in an ethical, culturally sensitive way that respects its religious significance.

Fig. 6
figure 6

(Source: Screenshots taken from the official website of Sketchfab)39

a and b 3D scanning of Shwedagon Pagoda.

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Digital efforts to preserve Shwedagon Pagoda have focused on safeguarding its intricate details, especially its gold-covered stupa and the hundreds of smaller stupas and statues that surround it. By using high-resolution 3D scanning and photogrammetry, researchers have successfully captured its architectural and decorative details. While still in the developmental phase, these digital representations promise to make the Shwedagon Pagoda accessible to a global audience.

Authenticity and cultural sensitivity

These digital efforts are also significant as they provide a record that can aid in the pagoda’s restoration and conservation, especially in the event of natural disasters, wear, or other damage. The potential success of a metaverse experience for Shwedagon Pagoda would not only attract global interest in Myanmar’s cultural heritage but also serve as an educational tool, raising awareness about Burmese Buddhism and architecture. It would enable users to view the pagoda’s transformation over centuries, learn about its religious context, and appreciate the artistic contributions of Myanmar’s artisans. However, preserving the Shwedagon Pagoda, both physically and digitally, poses several challenges40. The physical site is vulnerable to natural wear, environmental damage, and political changes. The extensive use of gold leaf and precious stones also requires regular upkeep, which is a costly and labor-intensive process. Furthermore, Shwedagon is a living religious site, meaning that preservation efforts must respect ongoing religious practices, and the cultural values associated with the site41. Digitally, creating a metaverse model of Shwedagon Pagoda involves capturing the site’s details accurately and respectfully. Given the pagoda’s religious significance, there are cultural sensitivities involved in digitizing and sharing its sacred spaces. Additionally, the technological resources and expertise needed for high-fidelity 3D modeling and virtual reality development present logistical and financial challenges. The Shwedagon Pagoda stands as a testament to Myanmar’s religious devotion and artistic legacy. Efforts to digitally preserve the pagoda and integrate it into metaverse could bring the sacred site to a broader audience, ensuring its accessibility and continuity for future generations. However, both digital and physical preservation efforts must navigate cultural and technical obstacles, ensuring that the sanctity and integrity of the site remain intact.

Other cases

Apart from these cases, there are also other prominent cases of digital preservation activities including the VR experience of Sanchi Stupa and Hampi – two important Indian heritage sites.

Sanchi Stupa

Heritage profile

The Sanchi Stupa, located in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India, is one of the oldest stone structures in India and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Built in the 3rd century BCE by Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty, the stupa is an essential monument in Buddhist history, symbolizing the Buddha’s relics42. Known for its hemispherical dome, which houses relics and sacred items, the stupa represents peace and spirituality.

Aesthetics and architecture

The Sanchi Stupa follows a traditional stupa architecture with a large dome called the Anda, symbolizing the universe. It is topped by a harmika, a square platform symbolizing a sacred boundary, and a chhatra, or parasol, which represents high rank and respect. The stupa is surrounded by a circular pathway for ritual circumambulation, enclosed by intricately carved gateways (toranas) facing each of the four cardinal directions. Each gateway depicts stories from the Buddha’s life, Buddhist symbols, and mythical beings.

Rituality and digital preservation

While the Sanchi Stupa has not yet seen full-fledged metaverse integration, there have been digital initiatives to capture its details and represent it virtually. Organizations such as Google Arts & Culture and Sketchfab have created digital galleries featuring Sanchi, where viewers can take virtual tours, as seen in Fig. 7(a-b) below. Potentially, metaverse integration could allow users to explore the site in an immersive 3D environment, engage with interactive narratives about Buddhist history, and witness historical events and traditions virtually.

Fig. 7
figure 7

(Source: Screenshots taken from the official website of Sketchfab)39

a and b 3D images of Sanchi Stupa.

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Authenticity and cultural sensitivity

The digital representation of the Sanchi Stupa, even in limited forms, has received positive responses as it has made this heritage site more accessible to global audiences43. These virtual representations help bring attention to India’s ancient architecture and Buddhist heritage, attracting students, researchers, and history enthusiasts from around the world. The Sanchi Stupa faces several preservation challenges44. As one of the oldest monuments in India, it endures natural wear, weathering, and erosion of stone carvings. Additionally, tourist foot traffic can impact the site, necessitating careful management. Digitization can be instrumental in conservation efforts, enabling precise restoration by preserving the original state of carvings and structural details45,46. Funding and maintaining the quality of digital archives and potential VR integrations are critical to sustaining the Sanchi Stupa’s heritage.

Hampi

Heritage profile

Hampi, located in Karnataka, India, is a sprawling archaeological site and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, known as the former capital of the Vijayanagara Empire (14th − 17th centuries). The ruins of Hampi span over 4,100 hectares and are home to a variety of temples, palaces, market streets, and intricate sculptures, making it a valuable repository of medieval South Indian culture, religion, and architecture.

Aesthetics and architecture

Hampi’s temple architecture is remarkable for its Dravidian style, featuring pillared halls, towering gopurams (gateway towers), intricate sculptures, and pavilions47. Temples like the Virupaksha Temple, Vittala Temple, and Hazara Rama Temple showcase distinctive features of Vijayanagara architecture, with detailed carvings depicting mythological themes, floral patterns, and animals48. The musical pillars of the Vittala Temple, which resonate with musical notes when tapped, are a famous architectural marvel in Hampi49.

Rituality and digital preservation

Hampi has seen significant digital preservation efforts, especially with initiatives led by organizations such as Google Arts & Culture and the Indian Ministry of Tourism. In collaboration with these organizations, Hampi has been digitally mapped with high-resolution 3D scans and panoramic images, as shown in Fig. 8(a-b) below.

Fig. 8
figure 8

(Source: Screenshots taken from the official website of Sketchfab)39

a Hampi chariot and b Hampi snanagriha (bathing house).

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Although full metaverse integration is still developing, existing digital models allow virtual visitors to explore Hampi’s temples and architecture interactively. Future metaverse experiences could include simulations of historical events, festivals, and the bustling life of Hampi during its peak.

Authenticity and cultural sensitivity

The digital representation of Hampi has been notably successful, garnering interest from both Indian and international audiences. These initiatives make Hampi’s unique architectural heritage accessible to people worldwide, especially to those who may not be able to visit the site in person. Educational programs utilizing Hampi’s virtual models have been launched to teach students about ancient Indian history, architecture, and culture50. Hampi faces multiple preservation challenges due to natural weathering, river erosion, and human impact51. Several structures are affected by tourist activities, leading to structural damage over time. The site is also prone to environmental degradation due to the nearby Tungabhadra River, and instances of vandalism have been reported52. The digital preservation efforts are a crucial step towards documenting and conserving Hampi’s intricate details, providing data for potential restorations. However, further efforts are needed to ensure that virtual models remain updated and reflective of the site’s current state.

Digital representation of Indian temples through metaverse could significantly impact cultural preservation, tourism, education, and accessibility. By creating immersive virtual experiences, metaverse can bring temple heritage to life, allowing users worldwide to explore these sacred sites without physical travel53. This approach could transform how people interact with India’s spiritual and architectural heritage, offering both preservation and educational benefits. Ahom temples could serve as a potential prospect for metaverse applications to preserve, study, and promote the architectural and cultural heritage of the Ahom civilization that lasted about six centuries (1228–1826) in Assam in the Northeast India. The Ahom temples, including the Siva Dol in the Sivasagar group of temples from the heritage city of Sivasagar, Assam – seen in Fig. 9(a-f) below – are architectural marvels rich in symbolic art and history54. Integrating these temples into metaverse could make them more accessible, fostering a global understanding of the unique Ahom legacy and preserving these heritage sites for future generations. The Ahom temples are intricate structures with delicate carvings, inscriptions, and cultural symbolism that are vulnerable to environmental degradation, erosion, and flooding55.

Fig. 9
figure 9

(Source: Authors’ field study)

a Siva Dol and b its carving; c Devi Dol and d its stone figurines; e: Vishnu Dol entrance and f: its carving.

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A metaverse-based preservation effort could create detailed 3D models to archive their current state, assisting restoration work and providing a precise record for future conservation efforts. Through virtual models, metaverse can offer a permanent digital record of these temples, preserving the architectural and cultural knowledge embedded within them. Virtual representation in metaverse would open up these temples to a global audience, enabling a virtual pilgrimage experience of observing Ahom festivals, rituals, and temple tours. This digital access would allow for a greater appreciation and understanding of the cultural significance of these temples while respecting their traditional use as sacred sites. Moreover, it could help students, researchers, and enthusiasts explore the architectural styles, religious practices, and historical significance of the Ahom civilization. Virtual tours could provide interactive content on the Ahom dynasty’s influence on temple architecture and Hindu traditions in Northeast India. Through these immersive educational experiences, users could learn about the unique fusion of indigenous Assamese and Vaishnavite influences in Ahom temple design and symbolism56. Metaverse could serve as a platform to bring attention to Ahom temples, helping to revitalize interest in Assam’s historical sites and attract more tourism to the region. In the light of this discussion, it is evident that integrating Ahom temples into metaverse holds potential to protect and promote Assam’s rich heritage, ensuring its cultural legacy endures and is accessible to a wider audience. Through respectful and accurate digital representations, the unique architecture and religious importance of Ahom temples can be preserved and celebrated for generations to come. Furthermore, the integration of metaverse, VR, AR, 3D scanning, and AI has revolutionized cultural heritage preservation by enhancing engagement, accessibility, and conservation. Case studies of Kodaiji Temple, Angkor Wat, Shwedagon Pagoda, Sanchi Stupa, Hampi, and Ahom temples highlight key aspects of aesthetics, rituality, architecture, landscape architecture, and authenticity in digital heritage. While these technologies bridge tradition and modernity, challenges remain in balancing digital innovation with cultural sensitivity, ensuring historical accuracy, and addressing ethical concerns. Sustainable digital preservation requires interdisciplinary collaboration and community-driven approaches to ensure that heritage sites remain both culturally relevant and technologically adaptable for future generations.

Discussion

The comparative analysis of Kodaiji Temple (Japan), Angkor Wat (Cambodia), and Shwedagon Pagoda (Myanmar) reveals significant insights into the aesthetic, architectural, cultural, and ritual dimensions of temple heritage preservation. As observed in each case, unique preservation challenges, technological interventions, and cultural considerations are highlighted, offering key lessons for future digital applications in heritage conservation. In terms of aesthetic and architectural considerations, the architectural diversity of these temples reflects distinct spiritual, historical, and regional influences. Kodaiji Temple exemplifies the minimalist elegance of Zen Buddhist architecture, with wooden structures, lacquered interiors, and carefully curated gardens enhancing its meditative atmosphere. In contrast, Angkor Wat stands as a monumental representation of Hindu-Buddhist cosmology, with its towering central spire symbolizing Mount Meru. The intricate bas-reliefs and expansive galleries emphasize narrative storytelling through architecture. Shwedagon Pagoda, with its gold-gilded stupa adorned with diamonds and precious stones, represents a sacred embodiment of Buddhist spiritual wealth and devotion. The Zen gardens in Kodaiji incorporate symbolic rock formations, reflective ponds, and tree arrangements, designed to evoke meditation and mindfulness. Angkor Wat’s expansive moat and causeways serve both cosmological and defensive purposes, reinforcing its association with sacred geography. Whereas Shwedagon Pagoda’s layered terraces and platforms create a hierarchical spatial organization, guiding devotees through different levels of spiritual engagement. These landscape elements shape the visitor’s experience, directing movement, interaction, and reflection within sacred spaces. Despite these achievements in these temple sites, preservation efforts face ongoing challenges. Angkor Wat and Shwedagon Pagoda are particularly vulnerable to environmental degradation, including climate change, erosion, and rising water levels. Tourism-induced wear and infrastructural stress further threaten their integrity. While digital documentation and 3D modeling offer conservation solutions, ongoing updates and monitoring mechanisms are needed to ensure long-term structural accuracy and adaptability.

The cultural and ritual significance of these sites plays a central role in their preservation and digital representation. Kodaiji Temple has actively engaged with digital innovation, incorporating AI-driven Zen teachings and VR-enhanced historical experiences. While this has attracted younger audiences, it also raises concerns about how technology may alter traditional Buddhist teachings and practices. In terms of efforts in their digital preservation, it is essential to prioritize historical accuracy, cultural and religious representation, and the educational potential of these virtual reconstructions. Achieving historical accuracy is critical, as each site embodies centuries of architectural and cultural heritage. At Kodaiji Temple, accuracy involves capturing the Zen Buddhist aesthetics and intricate 17th -century architectural details through advanced 3D modeling and historical research57. This involves evoking a Zen Buddhist atmosphere, allowing metaverse users to interact with elements like Japanese gardens, tea houses, and Buddhist relics, fostering a contemplative experience. Conversely, Angkor Wat and Shwedagon Pagoda remain active religious sites, requiring careful handling of digital representations to respect spiritual practices. Angkor Wat’s transformation from a Hindu temple to a Buddhist pilgrimage site demonstrates how heritage sites evolve across cultural and religious landscapes, adding complexity to historical accuracy in digital reconstructions. Its 12th -century Khmer architecture, vast scale, and intricate carvings of Hindu and Buddhist mythology demand detailed digital restoration based on archaeological records58. Originally Hindu before becoming a Buddhist site, it requires a digital preservation that honors its dual religious heritage, incorporating both Hindu and Buddhist elements. Through virtual rituals and ceremonies, users can appreciate the temple’s spiritual evolution. Similarly, Shwedagon Pagoda’s deep religious significance demands ethical considerations in digitally replicating sacred relics and rituals, ensuring that spiritual authenticity is maintained. Preserving the design and symbolism of its golden stupa and intricate Buddhist iconography is essential to honoring its historical and spiritual significance59. It can further offer an immersive insight into its cultural essence by focusing on capturing local Buddhist worship practices and symbolic artifacts. Ensuring these elements in metaverse provides an immersive, respectful, and educational experience that preserves each site’s cultural integrity.

Metaverse offers a unique platform to engage users in educational experiences that connect them with the cultural and historical depth of iconic sites like Kodaiji Temple, Angkor Wat, and Shwedagon Pagoda. At Kodaiji, interactive virtual tours could introduce users to Zen practices, Buddhist philosophy, and historical details, fostering mindfulness and immersion. For Angkor Wat, virtual archaeology experiences and gamified learning modules could help users explore Khmer architecture and history, making learning an adventure. At Shwedagon Pagoda, users can virtually participate in Buddhist ceremonies and explore sacred relics, deepening their understanding of Myanmar’s traditions. Together, these digital preservations in metaverse ensure historical accuracy, cultural fidelity, and interactive engagement, showcasing sacred sites in an accessible, boundary-free way. However, digital preservation of heritage sites like Kodaiji Temple in Japan, Angkor Wat in Cambodia, and Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar in metaverse faces distinct challenges. These challenges encompass preservation, technological, and cultural-ethical aspects, each crucial for accurately and respectfully recreating these sites virtually60,61. Preservation challenges are significant, as each site’s unique materials, aging structures, and architectural intricacies must be faithfully represented. For Kodaiji Temple, capturing the aged wooden structure and delicate carvings requires advanced imaging to reflect nuanced textures authentically. Angkor Wat’s vast scale and detailed bas-reliefs demand high-resolution 3D scanning to document features vulnerable to erosion, a painstaking but essential process. Shwedagon Pagoda presents a unique challenge with its frequently re-gilded surface, requiring digital preservation to reflect both its current state and ongoing maintenance efforts. Digital preservation must thus account for each site’s evolving condition, ensuring these landmarks are accessible for future generations.

Technological limitations challenge the quality and depth of virtual preservation for these sites with key issues being data accuracy and scalability62. High-resolution 3D scanning, VR, and AR integration require specialized tools and skills, which may be limited. Accuracy is vital to capture intricate details – like Kodaiji’s Zen gardens, Angkor Wat’s bas-reliefs, and Shwedagon’s gilded surfaces – ensuring each temple’s cultural and architectural identity is preserved. For Kodaiji Temple, capturing subtle garden patterns and wooden carvings requires precise technology. Angkor Wat’s vast size demands extensive data and computational resources for accurate 3D scans, and balancing accessibility across user hardware adds complexity. Shwedagon Pagoda’s golden stupa necessitates advanced rendering for reflective surfaces and dynamic lighting, simulating the interaction of light with gold. These technological demands not only influence the fidelity of digital preservation but also require efficient data management to create accessible, immersive virtual experiences.

Cultural and ethical considerations are essential in virtual preservation of these religious sites, each holding deep significance for local communities. For Kodaiji Temple, preserving the spiritual essence of Zen Buddhist practices is crucial, avoiding reduction to mere tourism. Virtual depictions of rituals require consultation with religious leaders to maintain authenticity and respect. Angkor Wat’s dual Hindu-Buddhist heritage presents cultural challenges, necessitating sensitivity to religious sanctity and adherence to UNESCO guidelines, involving multiple stakeholders. Shwedagon Pagoda, Myanmar’s most sacred Buddhist site, requires careful balance to respect ongoing worship while allowing virtual access. Involving Myanmar’s cultural leaders is vital to avoid trivializing sacred practices and ensuring any interactive features remain respectful. These projects thus face intertwined preservation, technological, and cultural-ethical challenges. A major challenge in digitally preserving ritual dimensions is the intangible nature of religious experiences. While 3D modeling, VR, and AR enhance architectural visualization, they often struggle to capture the spiritual, emotional, and performative aspects of temple rituals. Future research should explore multisensory digital simulations that integrate soundscapes, ceremonial lighting, and interactive storytelling, allowing users to engage in immersive, culturally sensitive ways. While Kodaiji Temple has successfully merged tradition with AI, concerns remain about whether digital interventions alter or dilute the essence of religious teachings. Future applications should prioritize collaborative approaches involving religious leaders, historians, and technologists to ensure that modern innovations support, rather than replace, traditional rituals. Angkor Wat and Shwedagon Pagoda highlight the need for long-term digital conservation strategies. Digital tools such as LiDAR, AI-assisted condition monitoring, and drone mapping should be implemented continuously rather than as one-time efforts, allowing temples to be monitored for structural changes over time. Therefore, successful digital preservation requires collaborative efforts among technologists, historians, and cultural leaders to honor both the physical integrity and cultural heritage of these iconic landmarks.

Digital preservation of these temple sites offers significant potential to enhance educational engagement, tourism, and cultural awareness. The case studies discussed above demonstrate the potential for interactive learning experiences where users can explore historical narratives, architectural evolution, and ritual practices in immersive environments. Metaverse-based heritage education should incorporate gamification and narrative-driven interactions to engage diverse audiences effectively. These virtual reconstructions allow global audiences – students, researchers, and tourists – to explore and learn about these historic sites without geographic limitations. In education, digital preservation transforms temples into interactive learning spaces in metaverse. Users can join immersive tours, study intricate details, and gain insights into the historical, architectural, and cultural significance of each site, such as Angkor Wat’s bas-reliefs or Shwedagon Pagoda’s symbolic design63. In tourism, virtual representations offer sustainable alternatives, enabling visitors to experience these sites without impacting the physical structures64. For example, a digital Angkor Wat reduces wear from foot traffic while still showcasing Khmer culture. Kodaiji Temple’s virtual presence attracts younger audiences to Japanese heritage, while Shwedagon Pagoda’s digital form promotes awareness of Burmese culture. By emphasizing historical context and artistic achievements, these experiences foster a deeper appreciation and a shared commitment to cultural preservation. In the light of this discussion, it is evident that digital preservation efforts of heritage sites must balance technological advancements with cultural and ethical considerations. Each site presents unique insights into historical accuracy, spiritual representation, and visitor engagement, shaping future approaches to metaverse-based heritage conservation. While digital tools offer transformative potential, their sustainability, cultural sensitivity, and accessibility must be prioritized to ensure that sacred spaces remain preserved for future generations while respecting their living heritage status.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates the transformative role of metaverse in digitally conserving temple architecture, offering a resilient new frontier for cultural heritage preservation. By virtually reconstructing iconic sites like Kodaiji Temple, Angkor Wat, and Shwedagon Pagoda, metaverse ensures the safeguarding of intricate architectural details and cultural narratives for future generations, while expanding access and enhancing educational engagement globally. Looking forward, this framework holds promise for the digital preservation of other temple architectures worldwide, fostering a unified global effort to protect sacred spaces. Additionally, there is a need for further research on how virtual religious experiences may evolve within metaverse and influence cultural practices in the physical world. Metaverse’s potential for cultural tourism is vast – temple architecture could become central to virtual tourism, allowing users to visit, learn historical contexts, participate in rituals, and engage in interactive storytelling that brings myths and traditions to life. Finally, the concept of collaborative virtual temples presents a unique avenue for innovation, where artists and architects could design new digital temples inspired by ancient styles. These spaces could serve as multifaceted hubs, blending religious significance with educational discussions, art exhibitions, and community events. Through these future directions, metaverse emerges not only as a tool for preserving cultural heritage but also as a dynamic platform for celebrating and reimagining sacred architecture in the digital age.