Introduction

Psychological entitlement (PE), a consistent and persistent belief that one is inherently deserving of more than others1, has been increasingly recognized as a significant factor influencing consumer behavior. Recent studies indicate a yearly rise in PE levels among individuals2, underscoring its growing relevance.

Generally, studies around PE surround its influence on people’s behavior in education, work, and interpersonal relationships3,4. For example, in education, students with high PE could take up too much of their professors’ time5. In addition, students with a heightened sense of academic privilege are more likely to feel anxious about grades and are more likely to cheat on exams6,7. For service workers, customers with high PE demand priority and more service time are more likely to engage in verbal aggression8. PE was also studied in business ethics9,10 and served as a variable to examine organizational citizenship behaviors11. It was used to study the likelihood of complying with instructions12,13 and to investigate people’s knowledge-hiding behaviors14,15,16.

Although narcissism and conspicuous or luxury consumption were studied in many articles17,18,19,20,21,22, the direct relationship between psychological entitlement (PE) and luxury consumption has received limited attention. Recent studies have revealed that PE represents a unique psychological construct fundamentally different from narcissism23, characterized by distinct interpersonal dynamics and consumption motivations. Unlike narcissistic individuals who seek attention and admiration through consumption, PE individuals maintain social connections while inherently believing in their deservingness of premium products and experiences33. This gap is particularly significant given that entitled consumers form a distinct and expanding market segment whose motivations extend beyond traditional social validation mechanisms. Understanding PE’s role in luxury consumption is crucial as it allows researchers to explore the distinct psychological mechanisms driving luxury purchase intentions beyond social validation, making it a key focus for addressing motivations related to entitlement. This gap is significant because tangible and experiential luxury offerings, which express exclusivity and prestige, may particularly appeal to psychologically entitled consumers, a distinct and expanding market segment whose motivations go beyond the traditional social validation mechanisms typically linked to narcissism.

While a few studies have examined PE in the luxury context, they focused on specific aspects such as the impostor syndrome23,24 or showcasing behaviors25,26, rather than the direct link between PE and purchase intentions. Given that entitled consumers’ belief in deservingness may drive luxury consumption through mechanisms distinct from narcissism, investigating this relationship is key to understanding how entitlement influences luxury consumption. Building on the finding that psychologically entitled individuals inherently view luxury as deserved23, it can be hypothesized that higher levels of PE are associated with stronger intentions to purchase luxury products and experiences, offering insights into consumption motivations that extend beyond social signaling. Testing this hypothesis offers insights into the psychological drivers behind luxury consumption and the impact of consumer entitlement.

To establish the theoretical basis for the proposed direct relationship between PE and luxury consumption, it is essential to examine the underlying motivations for purchasing luxury products and experiences. Vigneron and Johnson27 delineated several key motivating factors, including the perceived conspicuous, distinctive, social, emotional, and quality values associated with luxury brands. Consumers are drawn to luxury for various reasons, such as signaling wealth or status28 or fulfilling a need for uniqueness29. The latter motivation is particularly relevant to the current study, as it suggests that some individuals use luxury consumption as a means of self-expression and individuality. Luxury goods can enhance self-perception30 and satisfy a higher need for uniqueness through perceived scarcity and exclusivity. This aligns with the characteristics of psychologically entitled consumers, who have a heightened sense of self-worth and a desire to be seen as unique and special4. Therefore, the perceived ability of luxury products to express individuality and enhance self-image is likely to resonate strongly with those high in PE, driving their purchase intentions. By linking the motivational underpinnings of luxury consumption with the psychological traits of entitled consumers, this study aims to provide a clear theoretical rationale for the hypothesized direct relationship between PE and luxury purchase intentions.

Because people with high PE have pervasive sentiments of uniqueness, deservingness, and high expectations for themselves4, and since luxury products are exclusive and relatively scarce, we expect that these individuals find luxuries attractive in meeting their intrinsic value of being unique and expressing their individuality.

Based on the previous assumption that PE is an essential human characteristic influencing luxury consumption behaviors, this study addresses this research gap by exploring how PE directly influences luxury purchase intentions and delves into underlying motives beyond social cues, particularly through the moderating roles of fixed and growth mindsets. Consumers may be more likely to choose luxury brands when they want to use luxury consumption to enhance their self-image and signal their positive qualities to others. Recent articles have stated that people with fixed mindsets are more likely to purchase luxury products or experiences because of their desire to increase or show their self-worth by leveraging the symbolic value associated with these purchases; however, people with a growth mindset focus more on the quality of their purchases31,32. This shift in focus prompts the need to ascertain whether individuals engage in luxury consumption to augment their self-image and communicate positive attributes to others. Introducing fixed or growth mindsets as moderators in the correlation between PE and luxury purchase intentions introduces a layer of complexity to this scientific problem, enhancing the understanding of the intricate dynamics governing consumer behavior in the luxury market.

Literature review

Psychological entitlement

Psychological entitlement is characterized by an individual’s persistent belief in their inherent deservingness and superiority over others1,23. While often conflated with narcissism, PE is distinct; unlike narcissistic traits such as “self-absorption, grandiosity, and exhibitionism”33, individuals with high PE maintain interpersonal connections and view themselves as deserving while recognizing others.

Individuals with high PE inherently believe in their superior worth and deservingness1, irrespective of the effort they exert34. This belief may uniquely shape their consumption behaviors, particularly in contexts such as luxury, where exclusivity and perceived value align with their self-view. This character trait indicates that persons with high entitlement believe they deserve additional benefits irrespective of their expended effort23. Lange et al.35 argue that PE drives individuals to assert their perceived superiority, often through luxury consumption, which serves as a psychological mechanism to signal privilege and validate their elevated status. This motivation extends beyond mere possession to active digital self-presentation, with PE individuals showing a marked tendency to curate and share their luxury experiences on social media platforms25. This online sharing behavior is particularly significant as it transforms private consumption into public display, allowing PE individuals to continuously reinforce their perceived superior status while simultaneously influencing their social network’s consumption aspirations. Furthermore, high-PE individuals are inclined to share their luxury-purchase experiences on social media platforms25, potentially prompting upward social comparison among their audience. Additionally, Das et al.24 demonstrate that PE moderates the relationship between social comparison and luxury consumption, suggesting that individuals with high levels of PE are more likely to engage in luxury consumption to assert their perceived superiority and signal their status to others.

Furthermore, recent research suggests that PE individuals demonstrate a distinctive pattern of social media behavior, particularly about luxury consumption36. High-PE individuals consume luxury products and actively share their luxury experiences online, creating a digital manifestation of their perceived superiority. This social media sharing behavior serves multiple purposes: it reinforces their sense of deservingness, validates their consumption choices, and creates opportunities for upward social comparison by their followers.

Luxury consumption

Luxury consumption has evolved into a multifaceted ecosystem, encompassing functional, emotional, and social value dimensions37. However, the psychological underpinnings of these behaviors, particularly those driven by entitlement, remain underexplored. While superior quality remains important, luxury brands increasingly derive market value from psychological and sociocultural benefits extending beyond product attributes38. Contemporary studies show that emotional connections and symbolic meanings heavily influence luxury consumption decisions rather than purely rational evaluations39. Take, for instance, the scenario where someone opts to invest in a Burberry trench coat despite the availability of equally high-quality alternatives at a lower price point. This decision is often influenced by extrinsic factors such as the endorsement of social media influencers or the sight of a beloved movie star donning the same brand. Despite the tangible qualities of the product, individuals derive a sense of happiness and satisfaction from owning an item associated with cultural significance or celebrity endorsement.

Modern luxury consumption behavior is driven by multiple interconnected motivations identified in recent research. These include personal factors such as self-expression and hedonic pleasure40, social factors, including status signaling and peer influence41, and functional aspects like quality assurance and investment value42. Although prior research has delved into narcissism’s impact on luxury consumption patterns43,44, the role of psychological entitlement—a distinct construct grounded in inherent deservingness—has received limited scholarly attention. Investigating PE offers a novel lens to understand luxury consumption motivations beyond social validation. These motivations align closely with the characteristics of individuals exhibiting high levels of PE, characterized by feelings of superiority and deservingness. As proposed by Grubbs and Exline4, individuals with high PE are inclined towards satisfying their intrinsic need for uniqueness and their extrinsic desire for social status, both of which luxury items can potentially cater to. Consequently, it is hypothesized that:

H1

Consumers’ psychological entitlement positively correlates with their intentions for luxury consumption.

Consumer’s mindset

The consumer mindset, a well-studied psychological construct, centers on implicit beliefs about the adaptability of human traits45. This study extends this concept by exploring how fixed and growth mindsets interact with PE to influence luxury purchase intentions. Two prevalent mindsets, fixed and growth, shape consumers’ perceptions and behaviors46. These mindsets fundamentally influence how consumers view and use products as expressions or tools of self-development37. This is particularly relevant in luxury consumption contexts, where products often serve both symbolic and functional purposes. Individuals with fixed mindsets are inclined to showcase their inherent traits or image through products or brands, while those with growth mindsets seek items that facilitate personal development and learning46.

Consumers with fixed mindsets exhibit a strong inclination toward conspicuous consumption and luxury purchases46, driven by the self-enhancement and identity affirmation benefits these products offer. This perspective provides insight into how fixed mindsets amplify the appeal of luxury for entitled individuals. This tendency is particularly relevant to the PE-luxury consumption relationship because fixed mindset individuals view their qualities as stable and seek to demonstrate these qualities through consumption46. When combined with psychological entitlement, this fixed view of self-worth may amplify the desire to acquire luxury items as tangible proof of their perceived superior status. These benefits include creating an idealized self-image with luxury products, which is considered the main motivation behind luxury or conspicuous consumption47. Luxury consumption could allow consumers with fixed mindsets to enhance their self-image and make a better impression on others by showing their qualities, intelligence, or competence, which they consider fixed. For them, luxury brands are used for self-expression, self-enhancement, and self-verification. Their identities are formed by associating with the practical and symbolic components of brands. Consumers with fixed mindsets are more likely to engage in conspicuous consumption and luxury consumption32 because of the self-enhancement benefits engendered by the products. These benefits include creating an idealized self-image with luxury products, which is considered the main motivation behind luxury or conspicuous consumption48. Kwon et al.49 regression analysis also showed that a fixed mindset positively relates to a positive stance toward purchasing a luxury watch. Therefore, our study introduces the fixed mindset as the moderating factor in the positive relationship between PE and luxury purchasing intentions, and it is hypothesized that:

H2

The relationship between psychological entitlement and luxury purchase intentions is moderated by the consumer’s fixed mindset.

The underlying theme of growth mindset discussions often centers around the consumer’s aspiration for self-improvement50,51,52. This orientation may interact with psychological entitlement uniquely, as growth mindset individuals with high PE may justify luxury purchases not just through perceived deservingness but through the lens of self-improvement and mastery. The superior quality and craftsmanship of luxury items align with their focus on continuous development50, potentially strengthening the relationship between PE and luxury purchase intentions.

Regarding preference for luxury travel, people with fixed mindsets are more inclined to be inspired by appealing images of luxury travel that boost their sense of self-worth, while those with growth mindsets focus more on the quality rather than the boosted image arising from the symbolic value of luxury travel31. This observed distinction in consumer behavior suggests a potential interaction between consumer mindset and luxury consumption patterns. Based on the theoretical framework discussed above, we developed the following hypotheses to guide our empirical investigation:

H3

The relationship between psychological entitlement and luxury purchase intentions is moderated by the consumer’s growth mindset.

To systematically test these hypotheses about the relationships between psychological entitlement, consumer mindsets, and luxury consumption intentions, we developed a comprehensive research framework. Figure 1 presents the Theoretical Model proposed to examine the intricate dynamics between PE, consumer mindset, and luxury purchase intentions. This model serves as a conceptual framework guiding the exploration of how individual characteristics and cognitive orientations shape consumer behavior in the context of luxury consumption. At the core of the Theoretical Model lies psychological entitlement, which forms the foundation of the model, as it is hypothesized to exert a direct influence on consumers’ intentions to purchase luxury goods and services. In addition to the direct relationship between psychological entitlement and luxury purchase intentions, the model incorporates two important moderators: the fixed mindset and the growth mindset. These consumer mindsets represent distinct cognitive orientations that influence how individuals perceive and interact with luxury products and experiences.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Theoretical model.

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Methods

Research design

To empirically examine these three hypotheses about PE’s direct effect on luxury consumption (H1) and the moderating roles of fixed (H2) and growth mindsets (H3), we developed a systematic research design. Unlike previous studies that focused solely on narcissism or conspicuous consumption17,18,19, our research uniquely integrates psychological entitlement with both fixed and growth mindsets in the context of luxury consumption. This novel approach allows us to examine not just direct relationships but also potential interaction effects between these psychological constructs. Given the need to measure individual differences in psychological traits and consumption intentions, a survey approach was selected as the most appropriate method, and all the scales used were adapted from earlier research. The survey items were translated into Chinese, and ten academics in pilot research evaluated the content and meaning. Following the pilot study, questions were revised as needed, and the final version of the questionnaire demonstrated high validity and reliability. All items were scored on a five-point Likert scale, with one indicating “strongly disagree” and seven indicating “strongly agree.”

Sampling

To recruit participants, a questionnaire was distributed via Credemo, a Chinese online survey platform, which has a large sample library of over two million registered participants. Random selection was employed to recruit Chinese participants aged 18 and above.

Data collection

The Research Ethics Committee at Huangshan University approved our study. All experiments were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. To ensure robust hypothesis testing and minimize common method bias, we implemented several methodological controls, including attention check questions and time controls for survey completion. These methodological safeguards strengthen the validity of our findings. In our online survey, participants received information about their voluntary participation, potential risks, confidentiality and anonymity, and their right to withdraw at any time. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. We followed established protocols to ensure the confidentiality of participant data.

In the first part of the questionnaire, the respondent was informed that this questionnaire was developed only for research purposes and that their private information would not be exposed. Then, we asked for demographic information, including gender, age, education, and income. After this, we asked whether participants had purchased or had experience with luxury products. The following definition of luxury product or experience was explained to the respondent: A “luxury product is the thing that is expensive and enjoyable but not necessary”53. This study examines two distinct luxury categories: (1) tangible luxury products, including clothes, handbags, wallets, shoes, cosmetics, jewelry, watches, and other accessories (including sunglasses, belts, ties, scarves, and gloves); and (2) intangible luxury experiences, defined as “premium service encounters that offer exceptional quality, uniqueness, and exclusivity”54).

The measurement instruments were specifically selected to address each hypothesis: to test H1, the measurement of PE was conducted using a trait questionnaire. Participants evaluated their traits using six items on the Psychological Entitlement Scale (PES). Sample items included “I demand the best because I am worth it,” “I deserve more things in my life,” and “I feel entitled to more of everything”1,25. For H2 and H3, mindset orientations were measured using an eight-item scale developed by Levy et al.55. The scale was structured with four items assessing fixed mindsets and four items examining growth mindsets. For fixed mindset, a sample item was “people cannot change their deepest attributes.” For the growth mindset, a sample item was “people can significantly change their basic characteristics.”

In the measurement of purchase intentions, participants were presented with a hypothetical scenario: “Please imagine that you have enough money to spend on luxury products or experiences right now. A luxury product could be an LV watch with a big logo or without a logo. The luxury experience could be three nights in Beijing Ritz Carlton Hotel.” The scenario was accompanied by relevant photographs of these products and the Beijing Ritz Carlton Hotel. Purchase intentions were measured using items adapted from Zhang et al.56, which were specifically designed for the luxury consumption context. A sample item was “There is a good chance I will consider purchasing this luxury product or staying at this hotel within a year.” Participants were explicitly informed that purchase intentions were measured solely within the context of the hypothetical scenario, with no obligation to make actual purchases of the luxury products or experiences.

The sampling time was from March 17 to 19, 2024, totaling three days. A screening question was included to assess respondents’ honesty, and those considered to have failed this question or completed the questionnaire in less than 60 s were excluded. As a result, 37 questionnaires were identified as invalid, leaving us with 303 valid responses. We used correlation and regression analyses in SPSS to test the hypothesized relationships between PE, mindsets, and luxury consumption intentions.

Regarding the distribution of respondents, 57.1% were female, and many (62.37%) were between 26 and 40 years old. Furthermore, 73.6% of respondents (223 people) previously had luxury consumption experience within the year, and 80 respondents did not engage in luxury consumption during the year. For education, the participants are classified into four categories: high school and below (39 participants), college (75 participants), university (157 participants), and master and above (32 participants). The income distribution is outlined in three brackets: below 5000 yuan (77 participants), 5001–10,000 yuan (166 participants), and over 10,000 yuan (60 participants). In terms of occupation, the participants are categorized into various groups, including students (9 participants), company staff (151 participants), job holders (73 participants), educators (21 participants), and others (49 participants).

Results

Assessment of the measurement model

Before evaluating the reliability and validity of the constructs, an analysis was conducted to address the potential issue of common method bias (CMB). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed for this purpose, revealing that the multi-factor model exhibited superior performance compared to the single-factor model. The one-factor model did not achieve a good fit (χ2 = 946.258, p = 0.000; χ2/DF: 7.952; GFI: 0.622; AGFI: 0.514; NFI: 0.782; IFI: 0.804; TLI: 0.775; CFI: 0.803; RMSEA (90% CI): 0.142 ~ 0.161). In contrast, the multi-factor model demonstrated a satisfactory fit (χ2 = 251.180, p = 0.000; χ2/DF: 2.223; GFI: 0.910; AGFI: 0.878; NFI: 0.942; IFI: 0.967; TLI: 0.960; CFI: 0.967; RMSEA (90% CI): 0.053 ~ 0.074). The consistent superiority of the multi-factor model over the single-factor model across all waves suggests the absence of common method bias (CMB).

The scale’s reliability and validity were ensured using standard methodologies employed by researchers. Table 1 displays the outcomes of convergent validity and reliability.

Table 1 Results of convergent validity and reliability.
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The average variance extracted (AVE) exceeds 0.5, and the composite reliability (CR) surpasses 0.7, surpassing the recommended thresholds. Additionally, Cronbach’s alpha exceeds 0.8. Factor loadings were examined to assess convergent validity, with each loading exceeding 0.5, indicating strong convergent validity. In summary, the scale demonstrated satisfactory validity and reliability.

Structural model results

The standardized path coefficient value for the impact of PE on PI is 0.466, which is greater than zero. This path is highly significant at the 0.00 significance level (z = 8.738, p = 0.000 < 0.01), indicating a significant positive influence of PE on PI, thus confirming the positive relationship between PE and PI and supporting the hypothesis that Consumers’ psychological entitlement positively correlates with their intentions to luxury consumption.

Examination of moderating effects

Research on the moderating effect is divided into the following three models: First, Model 1 analyzes the influence of the independent variable X on the dependent variable Y, Model 2 adds the moderator variable based on Model 1, and Model 3 adds the interaction term between the independent variable X and the moderator variable based on Model 2. Then, If the F value changes significantly when Model 2 changes to Model 3, then there is a moderating effect. If, in Model 3, the interaction term is significant, there is a moderating effect.

Table 2 Results of hierarchical regression analysis for moderation effect of fixed mindset.
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The results of the hierarchical regression analysis presented in Table 2 reveal several significant findings. In Regression 1, the independent variable PE exhibits a noteworthy significance (t = 8.706, p = 0.000 < 0.05), indicating a significant impact on the dependent variable (PI). This implies that PE has a substantial effect on PI.

Moving to Regression 2, the inclusion of the moderating variable, FM (Moderating Factor), shows its own significance (t = 15.375, p = 0.000 < 0.05). This suggests that FM has a significant moderating effect on the relationship between PE and PI. The substantial increase in R² from 0.217 in Regression 1 to 0.581 in Regression 2 indicates that including FM explains a significant proportion of the variance in PI.

The most noteworthy finding emerges in Regression 3, where the interaction term between PE and FM demonstrates significance (t=-7.563, p = 0.000 < 0.05). This result suggests that the impact of PE on PI varies significantly at different levels of the moderating variable FM. In other words, the magnitude of the influence of PE on PI is contingent upon the varying levels of FM. Therefore, the hypothesis that the fixed mindset moderates the relationship between PE and luxury purchase intentions is upheld.

Table 3 Results of hierarchical regression analysis for moderation effect of growth mindset.
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The hierarchical regression analysis results presented in Table 3 provide valuable insights into the relationships among the variables under investigation. In Regression 1, the constant and the independent variable, PE, both demonstrate statistical significance (constant: t = 97.455, PE: t = 8.706, p = 0.000 < 0.05). This suggests that PE significantly influences the dependent variable (PI). The adjusted R² of 0.214 suggests that the model accounts for a substantial portion of the variance in PI.

Advancing to Regression 2, the inclusion of the moderating variable, GM (Moderating Factor), reveals a significant effect (FM: t=-0.440, p = 0.000 < 0.05). However, the overall model fit slightly decreases, with an adjusted R² of 0.212. This suggests that although statistically significant, the moderating effect of FM explains a relatively smaller proportion of the variance in PI.

Regression 3 introduces the interaction term between PE and GM (Moderator Variable). The interaction term demonstrates statistical significance (t = 4.556, p = 0.000 < 0.05), indicating that the impact of PE on PI varies significantly at different levels of the moderating variable GM. This finding implies that the relationship between PE and PI is contingent upon the varying levels of GM. Therefore, the hypothesis that the growth mindset moderates the relationship between PE and luxury purchase intentions is upheld.

Table 4 Hierarchical regression analysis for interaction of PE, fixed mindset, and growth mindset.
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Table 4 presents the results of the hierarchical regression analysis, which examines the effects of Psychological Entitlement (PE), Fixed Mindset (FM), and Growth Mindset (GM) on Purchase Intentions (PI), as well as their interaction effects. The analysis includes three models. Model 1 includes PE as the independent variable and PI as the dependent variable. Model 2 adds GM and FM as moderators to the regression equation. Model 3 incorporates the two-way interaction terms (PE × FM and PE × GM).).

In Model 1, PE explains 21.4% of the variance in PI, as indicated by an R² value of 0.214. demonstrating that PE has a significant positive effect on PI. Model 2 includes GM and FM as additional predictors, resulting in a substantial increase in R² from 0.214 to 0.574, indicating that these moderators explain an additional 36.0% of the variance in PI. The change in the F value is significant (p < 0.05), suggesting that the inclusion of GM and FM improves the model. The regression coefficient for FM is 0.64 and statistically significant (t = 15.90, p < 0.01), indicating a strong positive effect of FM on PI. However, the coefficient for GM is -0.027 and not significant, implying that GM does not have a direct impact on PI.

In Model 3, the two-way interaction terms (PE × FM and PE × GM) are added. This addition leads to another significant increase in R² to 0.660, meaning the interaction terms account for an additional 8.6% of the variance in PI. The interaction term PE × FM is significant (t=-8.54, p < 0.01), suggesting a negative moderating effect of FM on the relationship between PE and PI. The interaction term PE × GM is also significant (t = 4.22, p < 0.01), suggesting that GM positively moderates the relationship between PE and PI.

These findings highlight that while PE has a significant positive effect on PI, FM also exerts a strong positive main effect on PI. GM does not directly impact PI but significantly moderates the relationship between PE and PI. When examining the relative importance of these moderating effects, Table 3 shows that GM’s interaction with PE alone explains an additional 3.0% of variance (△R2 = 0.030). However, when both moderating effects are included together in Table 4, they account for a larger proportion of the variance (△R2 = 0.086), suggesting that both GM and FM play significant, yet complementary, roles in moderating the PE-PI relationship.

Discussion

This study explored the effects of psychological entitlement (PE) and mindset on consumers’ preferences for luxury products. It contributes to the growing body of literature on luxury consumption by highlighting how individual differences in PE and mindset orientation significantly influence consumers’ intentions to purchase luxury products and experiences. The findings suggest that PE positively influences purchase intentions (PI), which aligns with existing theories proposing that entitled individuals perceive luxury goods as a fundamental right, reinforcing their sense of self and social status.

In contrast, the direct effect of Fixed Mindset (FM) on purchase intentions is strong, suggesting that individuals with a fixed mindset prioritize external validation and view luxury products as symbols of status. This is consistent with the belief that traits such as social standing are inherent and should be publicly displayed. Although a Growth Mindset (GM) does not directly influence purchase intentions, it significantly moderates the relationship between PE and PI. Specifically, individuals with a growth mindset may view luxury products as a tool for personal growth or achievement, amplifying the impact of entitlement on their purchase intentions. This finding underscores the importance of mindset in shaping consumer behavior.

Furthermore, the joint moderating effects of FM and GM on the PE-PI relationship suggest that the two mindsets contribute in complementary ways. While GM alone contributes to the moderation effect, the combined effect of both mindsets together explains a significant portion of the variance in purchase intentions. This indicates that FM and GM do not merely act as redundant moderators but rather interact in ways that offer deeper insights into how mindset influences luxury consumption.

This research explored the PI of luxury products or experiences. In this regard, unlike previous research on conspicuous consumption58 that focuses on the visibility of luxury and the presentation of social status, we believe that the visibility of luxury is not the only reason consumers engage in luxury consumption. Diverse value is ascribed to the capital of luxury, including functional and emotional value. Presenting high social status through luxury brands is important for status consumption or conspicuous consumption. However, in this study, we argue that consumers also have high purchase intentions toward luxury products with less visible logos and high purchase intentions toward luxury experiences. The hedonic value, functional value, and value of authenticity, craftsmanship, creativity, and originality59 also drive consumers to engage in luxury consumption. Inconspicuous luxury consumption is also attractive to some consumers. Our findings align with recent research highlighting the multifaceted nature of luxury value beyond mere status signaling, including emotional, experiential, and self-expressive dimensions37,39. The present study extends this understanding by demonstrating how individual differences in entitlement and mindset shape luxury consumption motivations and behaviors.

Most research on PE focuses on the negative results of high PE, such as low social responsibility, selfish behavior60, more interpersonal conflict61, less empathy, and more greed1. In contrast, our research extends this understanding by demonstrating how the same underlying sense of deservingness that leads to interpersonal conflicts61 can manifest differently in consumer contexts. Specifically, we focus on the relationship between PE and luxury purchase intentions, illustrating how high PE individuals seek more resources and preferential treatment62. In this study, we emphasized the connection between luxury and consumer traits, particularly the role of PE. PE is related to the need for uniqueness4, and it has been found that consumers with a high need for uniqueness place greater emphasis on expressing themselves, establishing an independent identity, and using distinctive brands63. For entitled individuals, the exclusivity and rarity of luxury meet the need for uniqueness, while luxury’s prestige and premium pricing satisfy the need of consumers with fixed mindsets who seek to maintain high social status. Therefore, this study proved that high PE is a personality trait that can trigger luxury consumption. Consumers with high PE need to differentiate themselves from others and be considered special. Luxury brands, being exclusive and rare, help these consumers differentiate themselves from ordinary products. The current findings contribute to the literature by directly linking psychological entitlement to luxury purchase intentions, moving beyond the mechanisms identified in prior research on narcissism and conspicuous consumption43,44. An individual’s perception heavily influences the desirability of luxury, and their purchasing decisions are determined by what they value59. These findings emphasize the importance of individual differences, luxury motivations, and digital behaviors in future research and the need to explore new theoretical frameworks, such as the theory of uniqueness, to better understand diverse consumer motivations behind luxury purchasing.

This research explores how PE and mindset orientations influence luxury consumption, highlighting that the motivations behind such consumption are not limited to the visibility of luxury goods or the presentation of social status. Therefore, we selected the consumption of luxury products or experiences as the dependent variable. This study encompasses both tangible luxury products and intangible luxury experiences. Although conspicuous consumption may be less relevant for luxury experiences compared to luxury goods due to the lack of tangible, easily displayable possessions57, both luxury products and experiences can serve important social signaling functions when shared on social media or discussed in social settings.

Previous studies on luxury consumption often used signaling theory and theories relating to conspicuous consumption64,65,66,67 to explain luxury consumption. Our findings complement these established theories by revealing how psychological entitlement creates a distinct pathway to luxury consumption, one that extends beyond the status signaling emphasized by Veblen67 and the social distinction described by Berger64. However, treating luxury as a signal of social class and purchasing it as an expression of high social status is not the only reason for consumption. Previous research has largely overlooked the uniqueness of luxury consumption as an important factor affecting consumers’ purchase intentions. Luxury products or experiences, with their exclusivity and scarcity, can also meet the need for uniqueness and originality for consumers with high PE who seek social dissimilarity28.

The present research advances our understanding of the psychological antecedents of luxury consumption by identifying entitlement as a key individual difference that shapes purchase intentions. Moreover, by examining the moderating role of mindset orientation, our study provides a nuanced perspective on how the interaction between entitlement and implicit theories influences luxury consumption behaviors. Consumers with fixed mindsets favor luxury because they view their personalities and identities as fixed, using luxury products as a means to express social identity and superiority. These consumers use luxury consumption for self-expression and self-presentation. Our findings regarding the moderating role of a fixed mindset al.ign with prior research indicating that individuals with a fixed mindset are more drawn to products that signal positive traits and enhance self-image36,43. The study extends this understanding to the luxury context, showing that the relationship between entitlement and luxury purchase intentions is strengthened for fixed-mindset consumers, as they use luxury to validate their perceived superiority.

Research has found that a growth mindset is also a personal trigger for luxury consumption since this mindset favors products with superior quality, encompassed in luxury products or services. This relationship builds upon Park and John’s51,52 foundational work on mindset effects in consumer behavior while revealing new aspects of how growth mindset individuals approach luxury goods. Previous studies on growth mindset have stated that people with a growth mindset are readily persuaded by advertisements indicating that the product may be applied for self-improvement, such as a nutritional supplement that can assist them in improving and becoming better. Their value for development and learning is consistent with these goods51,52. However, in our experiment, a luxury watch or hotel would not be highly associated with self-improvement; instead, it would have a hedonic, signifier, and functional value. Therefore, this study implied that self-enhancement is not the only reason influencing consumers with a growth mindset to purchase a product. Thus, future research ought to engage in a deeper investigation of the relationship between the growth mindset and luxury consumption. The finding that a growth mindset moderates the relationship between entitlement and luxury purchase intentions offers a novel perspective on how implicit theories shape luxury consumption. While prior research has primarily focused on the role of growth mindset in driving preferences for self-improvement products51,52, our study suggests that growth-minded consumers may also view luxury as a means to enhance their experiences and fulfill their sense of deservingness. This insight opens up new avenues for future research to explore the multifaceted motivations underlying luxury consumption among growth-minded individuals.

Overall, studying consumer behavior from the perspective of implicit theory can better help understand consumer behavior and predict and effectively guide the marketing and sales of luxury products or experiences. Our study showed that consumers with different mindsets have different levels of luxury purchase intentions, and we contributed to the implicit theories. Consistent with Park and John’s study51, we found that luxury brands, often associated with high quality, prestige, and social status, are particularly appealing to fixed-mindset consumers seeking self-presentation.

Our study highlights the connection between high PE and luxury consumption, indicating that luxury marketers should focus on targeting consumers with high PE, emphasizing exclusivity and originality. Exclusivity could be achieved by using naturally scarce materials, limited editions, limited production lines, selective distribution, original designs, and the establishment of waiting lists. Establishing uniqueness could be done through handmade crafts, private orders, custom tours, and creating exclusive shopping atmospheres69. Consumers with different mindsets prefer different brand personalities. Therefore, luxury brands could appeal to diverse consumers with fixed and growth mindsets by using customized marketing strategies, products, or packaging.

Future researchers will need to account for the limitations of this investigation. First, our research sample consisted solely of Chinese consumers, who do not necessarily represent the entire luxury consumer population. To better generalize the findings, a follow-up study could include consumers from other nationalities. Additionally, it is important to acknowledge potential self-reporting bias, as participants may have been influenced by social desirability or inaccuracies in self-perception when responding to survey questions. While self-reported data were essential for assessing subjective traits like psychological entitlement and purchase intentions, future studies should employ methods such as observational studies or experimental designs to capture more objective measures of luxury consumption and psychological entitlement, helping to validate the findings and reduce potential biases.

Also, this study includes consumers of all ages over 18 in the context of the mature Chinese market. Thus, future research could study how young people in emerging markets respond to luxury advertisements. Although the questionnaire used in our study only includes top luxury brands, these companies now carry different sub-lines for different segments of customers. Therefore, future research could examine consumers’ purchase intentions toward other accessible sub-lines of top luxury brands.