Introduction

Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) is the essence of living culture and represents the cultural legacies transmitted through generations. It is both intangible and vibrant, serving as a repository of national memory and historical testimony1. ICH encompasses a wide array of practices, performances, expressions, knowledge systems, and skills, along with associated tools, objects, artifacts, and cultural sites2,3 It intertwines the intrinsic cultural memory of specific regions or nations, reflecting deeply rooted regional and national characteristics4. ICH is characterized by its ethnic diversity, variability, vulnerability, and territoriality5, alongside qualities such as authenticity, integrity, and hierarchy6. It plays a crucial role in bolstering national cultural self-confidence and enhancing the soft power of cultures. The international community recognizes ICH as a significant determinant of a country’s or nation’s creativity and comprehensive competitiveness7, as well as a testament to its rich historical legacy8. Consequently, the rational and effective recognition, systematic development, and protection of ICH are of paramount importance. The systematic protection and comprehensive study of ICH are predominantly approached through various disciplines, including ethnography, tourism, sociology, and management. These studies focus on aspects such as the protection8,9,10, inheritance11,12, characterization13, tourism development13,14,15, and value utilization16,17 of specific items or regions. In recent years, the significance of geography in the analysis of ICH has increasingly come to the forefront, employing spatial theory to identify the spatial locations of ICH as points18 or surfaces4 across different scales—national18,19,20, multi-provincial3,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29, and mono-provincial30,31,32. This geographic approach facilitates an examination of the spatial distribution of ICH and its influencing factors, thereby providing a foundation for regional-level protection and development strategies. It is essential to recognize that the influencing factors of ICH vary by region, type, and temporal context, resulting in divergent transmission methods, dissemination pathways, and safeguarding initiatives. This variability offers a substantive basis for the study of ICH across different regions and categories.

The protection of ICH has shifted from focusing on the protection of the heritage itself to placing greater emphasis on systematic protection, guided by the concept of cultural ecological protection areas This transformation necessitates a deeper understanding of the spatial distribution characteristics of ICH. By leveraging tools such as ArcGIS software, we can analyze these characteristics, thereby improving the level of ICH management and protection33. Additionally, this approach provides a scientific basis for the systemic protection and inheritance of culture and the high-quality sustainable development of regions34 and the use of knowledge maps35 and visualization analysis lays the foundation for the sustainable development of ICH. In the scope of the space of the distribution characteristics, the influencing factors become the important factors of systemic protection, and the Geodetector is detecting spatial specificity, and reveals the driving force behind a set of statistical methods36,37, for the larger scale space of intangible culture provides the systematic protection of natural environment and social environment.

China, with its expansive geography, exhibits significant variations across its eastern, southern, western, and northern regions in terms of natural environments, as well as socio-economic conditions, historical developments, and cultural traditions. The Chinese Government has implemented pivotal legislation and policies, such as the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage (2011) and the Opinions on the Implementation of the Project for the Inheritance and Development of Outstanding Traditional Chinese Culture (2017). These measures have significantly advanced the preservation and development of ICH, yielding substantial achievements in its safeguarding. China boasts a total of 43 items on the UNESCO ICH List, positioning it as the global leader in this category. The nation has established a comprehensive inventory of ICH at national, provincial, municipal, and county levels, accumulating over 100,000 representative items and gradually cultivating a differentiated and diversified array of ICH resources.

Currently, research on ICH is predominantly concentrated in the central, eastern, and southern regions of China3,21,23,24,28,29, with relatively few holistic and systematic studies for the Northwest region26,32. Northwestern China is not only an important cultural area of Chinese civilization, but also has a strong geographic relevance to the culture of the region due to the ancient Silk Road. Therefore, when researching ICH in the west, holistic research is more helpful to the protection and development of ICH than research on a single province.

Taking Northwestern China as the research object, this study employs analytical methods such as Gini coefficient, proximity index and kernel density to study the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of ICH and its influencing factors from 2006 to 2023 at both the overall and type levels. The objective is to offer a scientific foundation for the development planning of ICH in the region (Fig. 1). This research aims to provide a typical case study of the spatial distribution characteristics of ICH in Northwestern China. Thereby enriching the field of cultural geography and offering strategic recommendations for the sustainable development of ICH.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Research framework diagram.

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Materials and methods

Study areas

The Northwest Region of China encompasses the five provinces of Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Qinghai, and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (Fig. 2). It has historically served as a pivotal area for trade with landlocked Asian countries and acted as a significant barrier against foreign incursions. This region not only embodies the cultural legacy of the ancient Silk Road but also plays a crucial role in the ongoing development of the Silk Road Economic Belt. Covering a total area of 3,116,900 km2 and comprising 63 prefectural-level cities and districts, it accounts for approximately one-third of the nation’s total land area. According to the Seventh National Population Census conducted on November 1, 2020, the Northwest Region has a permanent resident population of 104 million, marking it as an area characterized by low population density. By the end of 2023, the region had declared 437 national-level ICHs, while provincial authorities established 2,442 provincial-level ICHs. The list of UN’s Representative List that needs urgent protection includes the Xinjiang project ' Maxi Repu ‘. This substantial number and variety of items underscore the deep cultural roots of the multiple ethnic groups residing in the region, and it plays an important role in China’s ICH.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Location of the study area in China.

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Data sources

The data on national ICH utilized in this study are sourced from The China Intangible Cultural Heritage Website (https://www.ihchina.cn) and provincial ICH data is derived from the notifications published by the respective provincial governments. The geographic coordinates depicted on the map correspond to the protection units where the ICH is situated. Additionally, other data, including influencing factors, are mainly collected and sorted through the annual statistical inspection of 63 prefecture-level cities and the statistical bulletin on national economic and social development from 2011 to 2024. After the collection is completed, according to the characteristics of China’s economic and tourism development, the four annual cross-sectional data of 2010, 2015, 2020, and 2023 are selected for the trend of time evolution.

Research methods

This study mainly uses the Gini coefficient, the Nearest Neighbor Index(NNI), the kernel density and the Geodetector and other research methods. The Gini coefficient mainly analyzes the difference characteristics of the geographical distribution of the ICH in the northwest region. The NNI determines the spatial distribution type of the ICH in the northwest region. The kernel density analyzes the specific concentration position and concentration degree of the ICH resources in the northwest region and the Geodetector analyzes the influencing factors of the spatial distribution characteristics of the ICH in the northwest region. Based on the above Gini coefficient and other methods, the spatial distribution characteristics of different types of ICH in Northwestern China and their impact factor detection and interaction are analyzed.

Gini coefficient

The Gini coefficient is used to describe the differences in the geographical distribution of research factors between regions. Gini coefficient is between 0 and l. When Gini coefficient is close to 0, it indicates that the distribution tends to be balanced, which means the number of ICH sites in each region is equal. When it is close to l, it indicates that ICH sites are concentrated in a certain region. The specific formula is as follows38:

$$\:G=\frac{-{\sum\:}_{i=1}^{n}{P}_{i}\text{ln}{P}_{i}}{\text{ln}N}$$
(1)

In these formulas, G is the spatial Gini coefficient; Pi is the proportion of ICH belonging to a specific category within the i-th city, relative to the total number of heritage items present in that city; N is the total number of cities in the study area.

Nearest neighbor index

This study takes the coordinates of the protected units as the geographic location of the corresponding ICH, and determines the type of spatial distribution of the ICH by calculating the NNI. The specific formula is as follows18:

$$\:NNI=\frac{{\sum\:}_{i=1}^{N}\frac{{mind}_{ij}}{N}}{0.5\sqrt{(A/N)}}$$
(2)

In these formulas, mindij is the distance between any ICH and the nearest neighboring ICH; N is the total number of ICH; A is the total area of the study area.

Kernel density

Kernel density can directly reflect the specific concentration place and concentration degree of a certain resource. This study explores the degree of aggregation and areas of aggregation by calculating the kernel density of ICH as a whole and by type in the five northwestern provinces.The specific formula is as follows1:

$$\:\text{g}\left(\text{x}\right)=\frac{1}{\text{n}\text{h}}\sum\:_{\text{i}=1}^{\text{n}}\text{k}\left(\frac{\text{x}-{\text{X}}_{\text{i}}}{\text{h}}\right)$$
(3)

In these formulas, k( ) is the kernel density; h > 0 indicates the bandwidth; (x-Xi)represents the distance from the valuation point x to the event Xi.

GeoDetector

Spatial differentiation is one of the basic characteristics of geographical phenomena, and Geodetector is a tool for detecting and exploiting it. Geodetector includes four detectors, and this paper uses two of them: the factor detector and the interaction detector. The specific formula is as follows25:

$$q = 1 - \frac{{\mathop \sum \nolimits_{{h = 1}}^{L} N_{h} \sigma _{h}^{2} }}{{N\sigma ^{2} }}$$
(4)

In these formulas, N and σ2 are the sample size and variance of the ICH, Nh and σ2h are the sample size and variance of the h-th type of influencing factors; L is the classifcation number of the h- th type of infuencing factors. The larger the q value, the greater the infuencing factor on the spatial distribution of ICH.

Results

Distribution structure of ICH in Northwestern China

Based on the categorization criteria established by the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Intangible Cultural Heritage (2011), the Northwest region has a full range of ICH types. Meanwhile, the Gini coefficient of each type exceeds 0.8, indicating an obvious uneven distribution, forming a typological structure dominated by traditional skills and supplemented by folk customs, traditional fine arts, and traditional music.(Fig. 3) Traditional skills are the Chinese nation endless “flowing culture”, is the Chinese people can feel “traditional”39. Similarly, in the northwest region, the traditional skills reflect national diversity, life diversity, and the influence of multiple factors on production. They also reflect the northwest residents in nature and society on the basis of historical formation is given priority to with traditional skills ICH characteristics.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Typological structure and distribution of intangible cultural heritage.

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A total of 2,879 national and provincial ICH items have been identified in the Northwest region, comprising 437 national items (15.18%) and 2,442 provincial items (84.82%). Traditional skills emerge as the most prominently represented category, with 760 items, accounting for approximately 26.40% of the total. This is followed by folk customs (409 items), traditional fine arts (382 items), and traditional music (331 items), which represent 14.21%, 13.27%, and 11.50% of the total, respectively. Additional categories include traditional dance (256 items), folk literature (222 items), traditional theatre (151 items), traditional medicine (132 items), traditional sports, entertainment, and acrobatics sites(130 items), and Quyi (106 items), which account for 8.89%, 7.71%, 5.24%, 4.58%, 4.52% and 3.68% of the total, respectively.

In Northwest China ICH mining, sorting and protection system, the four types of ICH—traditional skills, folk customs, traditional fine arts, and traditional music—continue to improve. Through festivals like the Spring Festival, the protection of these cultural hotspots continues to strengthen. The museum-based static ICH protection system has become a popular form of cultural engagement, characterized by strong two-way interaction between tourists and residents, and has gradually become a key focus for cultural tourism development in the Northwest. On the contrary, the four ICH types of Quyi, traditional sports, entertainment and acrobatics, traditional medicine, and traditional theatre are relatively scarce, so their systematic protection and excavation should be further strengthened.

The distribution of ICH in Northwest China is closely related to its social and natural environment. Shaanxi Province has the largest number of ICH (862, 29.94%). On the contrary, Ningxia Province has the smallest number of ICH (217, 7.54%). Besides, Xinjiang, Gansu and Qinghai had 715 (24.84%), 572 (19.87%) and 513 (17.82%) respectively. Traditional skill are the most prevalent type across all provinces, with Shaanxi displaying a significantly higher number of traditional skill programs—nearly double that of Qinghai, which ranks second. Shaanxi province’s traditional skill category is rich in resources. In 2012, Shaanxi province established the “Eight Projects” initiative to build a culturally strong province, among which the “Cultural Heritage Inheritance Project” prioritizes the inheritance and transmission of intangible heritage40. Meanwhile, Xi’an, the capital of Shaanxi, is not only the starting point of the ancient Silk Road, but also the ancient capital of the eight dynasties of ancient China, with a long history and strong economic strength, which is an important support for the heritage and development of the ICH. Besides, types in each province reflect the characteristics of each province. Gansu and Shaanxi have more traditional fine arts and folk customs, Ningxia has more traditional fine art, Qinghai has more folk customs, and Xinjiang has more traditional music.

In terms of time, the number of declarations in the Northwest region was declining year by year, from 1263 to 345. And all provinces, except for Ningxia—which saw an increase in declarations from 2021 to 2023, reaching a new peak—also exhibited a fluctuating downward trend in the number of declarations. The largest reduction was in Xinjiang, with a reduction of 366.(Fig 4)

Fig. 4
figure 4

Changes in the number of declarations by province and type, 2006–2023.

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Upon analyzing specific types of ICH, with the exception of traditional medicine, the number of declarations for all other categories exhibited a fluctuating downward trend. During the period from 2006 to 2010, declarations for traditional skill, traditional music, and folk customs all surpassed 200 items, whereas traditional medicine had the fewest, with only 22 declarations. In the subsequent period from 2011 to 2023, The share of traditional skill grows until it approaches 50%, while Quyi has always been the least type, with no more than 5 items. Traditional skill have been leading in the number of declarations due to their close connection with daily life and relatively simple conditions for their inheritance and development, as well as the large number of items preserved in various regions. The traditional medicine of the Northwest is mainly the medicine of various ethnic minorities, whose base is relatively small, while the better developed and more complete Chinese medicine is mainly clustered in the east and south of the country. Meanwhile, the development of Quyi is concentrated in the Suzhou-Hangzhou area and the Beijing-Tianjin area, such as Yangzhou Storytelling and Crosstalk, which in ancient times have been a way for the rich and powerful to enjoy themselves. However, the lifestyle of the people in the Northwestern China has always been more frugal, and the ethnic minorities in particular often express their emotions through group songs and dances.(Fig 5)

Fig. 5
figure 5

Type structure of ICH declared in the Northwestern China, 2006–2023.

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Spatial and temporal distribution of ICH types in Northwestern China

Spatial distribution characteristics

Utilizing Formula (2) for the NNI, the average NNI for ICH in the Northwest Region, as well as for each specific type, was calculated using ArcGIS 10.8 software (Table 1). The results indicate that ICH in Northwestern China reflects a significant absolute aggregation distribution characteristic, and that the overall spatial distribution of ICH from 2006 to 2023 has gradually become more aggregated. It can be seen that with the continuous increase of the number of ICH within the region, the spatial aggregation also continues to intensify41, and northwestern China also responds to this change feature.

Table 1 NNI calculations for ICH in Northwestern China.
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Meanwhile, all types of ICH demonstrate notable aggregation distribution characteristics, there are variations in the degree of aggregation among them. In terms of specific types, traditional skills exhibit the highest degree of aggregation, while traditional sports, entertainment, and acrobatics demonstrate the lowest. Specifically, the NNI for traditional skills is 0.12, indicating the highest level of aggregation, followed by folk customs with an NNI of 0.18, which represents the second highest degree of aggregation. The NNI for traditional music, traditional dance, folk literature, traditional fine arts, traditional theatre, Quyi, and traditional medicine fall within the range of 0.2 to 0.3, reflecting a diminishing degree of aggregation in that order. The development of traditional skills mainly depends on people’s living space, which is closely related to the distribution of residential areas such as towns and villages. Thus, traditional skills are clustered in dense urban and densely populated areas. Conversely, because traditional sports in the Northwest region are mainly horse racing, sheep competition and other programs that require large areas of activity space, they are mainly located in wide areas, and thus have a low degree of aggregation, but cover a wide area.

Density distribution characteristics

The Kernel Density module, a spatial analysis tool within ArcGIS 10.8, was employed to conduct kernel density analysis of ICH in Northwestern China, both as a whole and by specific types (Fig. 6). It illustrates that ICH in Northwestern China reveals two primary high-density areas centered around central Shaanxi and eastern Qinghai-central Gansu, alongside five sub-high-density areas located in northern Ningxia, central, western, and northwestern Xinjiang, as well as northern Gansu. Xi’an, Xianyang and Weinan in central Shaanxi concentrate 14.61% of the ICH in Northwestern China. Xining, Haidong and Lanzhou in eastern Qinghai-central Gansu concentrate 9.81% of the ICH. These cities have a long history, with Xianyang being the ancient capital of China’s first dynasty, the Qin, and Xi’an the ancient capital of the Eight Dynasties. Frequent human activities began to develop here from the Qin Dynasty and never stopped, even prospering and developing for a thousand years. Haidong is the birthplace of Huangshui culture (an important part of Chinese civilization), with the existing Xining Airport situated within the city, and the Qinghai-Tibet Railway, Lanzhou-Xinjiang High-speed Railway and Beijing-Tibet Expressway traversing the whole territory. Xining and Lanzhou are important transportation hubs in Northwestern China, as well as the economic and political centers of the provinces. In addition, these cities are also the necessary routes of the ancient Silk Road, where the economy, culture and politics of the past and present have worked together to promote the prosperity and development of ICH. As a result, ICH is highly clustered, diverse and numerous in these two regions.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Results of kernel density analysis.The (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), (h), (I), (j) in Fig. 6 represented: Traditional fine arts, Traditional dance, Folk customs, Traditional medicine, Folk literature, Traditional music, Traditional theatre, Traditional skills,, Quyi, Traditional sports, entertainment, and acrobatics sites. The kernel density distribution maps of 10 types of intangible cultural heritage were used to effectively reveal the characteristics of the concentration degree, cavity area and trend distribution of intangible cultural heritage in Northwest China by the end of 2023 through ArcGIS 10.8 software.

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Overall, the spatial distribution of ICH is predominantly centered around provincial capitals, with certain individual cities and counties distinguished by higher concentrations, while the remainder of the region exhibits a relatively even distribution. As a “living” culture, ICH typically disseminates alongside the movement of people and trade. Consequently, the more frequent population movements and commercial activities in provincial capitals may significantly influence the distribution of ICH. In contrast, regions such as Qinghai and Xinjiang, which are characterized by sparse populations, face challenges in gathering populations due to higher altitudes, making the foundational conditions for ICH formation more difficult25. As a result, densely populated and lower-altitude southeastern cities, such as Xi’an and Weinan, tend to have a greater abundance of ICH. This highlights that the distribution characteristics of ICH are closely intertwined with dynamics of human life and are fundamentally linked to the spatial distribution of settlements. In addition, from the micro scale, its distribution is relatively scattered, with the characteristics of traffic directionality and the development process with highways as the main line41.

In terms of the distribution of types, they are predominantly distributed at high densities in the southeastern part of the Northwest Region, with notable concentrations also found in the northern and northwestern regions of Xinjiang. Specifically:

Firstly, traditional fine art exhibit the broadest distribution, encompassing 51 prefecture-level cities and regions, primarily in Shaanxi, Ningxia, southern Gansu, eastern Qinghai, and western and northwestern Xinjiang. Then, although traditional skill have the largest total number, covering 50 prefecture-level cities and regions, they are characterized by a higher degree of clustering. In Shaanxi, traditional skill account for 34.87% of the total. Thus, it has the second largest distribution.

Secondly, traditional dance, folk customs, traditional medicine, Quyi, and traditional sports, entertainment, and acrobatics all exhibit a distribution pattern characterized by a high-density core area in central Shaanxi and eastern Qinghai, albeit with slight variations. Traditional dance is primarily concentrated in Yan’an and Yulin. Folk customs are predominantly found in Xi’an, Weinan, and Xianyang. Traditional medicine, Quyi, and traditional sports, entertainment, and acrobatics are mainly centered in Xi’an and Xining.

Thirdly, both folk literature and traditional music exhibit a distribution pattern with Haidong and Xi’an serving as high-density core areas, while Urumqi represents a sub-high-density core area. The Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture has the largest number of traditional music; however, due to the vastness of the region, the distribution is more dispersed, resulting in only a sub-high-density core area. Additionally, traditional theatre is predominantly distributed in the southeast of the Northwest region, where it accounts for 80.79% of the total number of items. This type forms a distribution pattern with Weinan as the high-density core area, and Lanzhou and Haidong as sub-high-density core areas.

In summary, central Shaanxi, eastern Qinghai, and Urumqi are the core areas for the distribution of various types of ICH, characterized by their abundance of ICH, and are the key areas for the transmission, safeguarding, and development of ICH in Northwestern China. In recent years, the northwest region’s ICH tourism development and tourism development process of the ICH have become effective interaction. For example, in March-April 2024, Gansu’s “Tianshui malatang” formed a new attraction on the internet, becoming an important food item, attracted a lot of tourists to participate in and experience. It helped carry forward the excellent traditional culture and promoted the development of intangible and tourism integration. Not only that, bur ICHs like Linxia flowers and Wushan encouraged the power of non-material cultural heritage to drive the high-quality development of the tourism industry.

From a temporal perspective(Fig. 7), the spatial distribution pattern of ICH in the Northwestern China has evolved from a “single point with two nuclei” to a “multiple points with two nuclei” model from 2006 to 2023. Between 2006 and 2010, a total of 1,263 ICH were declared across the Northwestern China. Although Xinjiang led with the highest number of declarations at 380 items, accounting for 30.09% of the total, it did not demonstrate high spatial density due to a more balanced distribution of declarations across its cities and the extensive area of the region. During this initial period, ICH established a distribution pattern with Lanzhou City and Xi’an City as high-density core areas, and Urumqi City serving as a secondary high-density core area.

Fig. 7
figure 7

Distribution of kernel density of ICH in the Northwestern China, 2006–2023.The (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g) in Fig. 7 respects : The comprehensive kernel density distribution of ICH in different years and time periods of 2006–2010, 2011–2015, 2006–2015, 2016–2020, 2006–2020, 2021–2023, and 2006–2023 is mainly used to illustrate the spatial distribution, characteristics, and aggregation of ICH in different cross-sectional data and development periods in 2010, 2015, 2020 and 2023.

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In subsequent years, the ICH exhibit high-density clustering primarily in the southeastern cities of Xi’an, Dingxi, Lanzhou, and Tianshui, while a smaller number of items are concentrated in areas such as Yushu and Yinchuan. From the perspective of tourism development in northwestern China, major cities such as Xi’an, Lanzhou, Tianshui, Xining, Urumqi and others have also been formed, and destinations mainly for urban tourism are also using the intangible cultural resources in this region to inject fresh vitality and impetus to support for the transformation and upgrading of tourism. For example, the ancient streets and food streets of the city will use the architectural form of the front hall and back square and the traditional food processing method to attract more tourists to participate in it.

In summary, Shaanxi, central Gansu, and eastern Qinghai are critical regions for the exploration and development of ICH, necessitating the implementation of suitable transmission and protection measures. Conversely, Xinjiang, a significant strategic area of the Silk Road in China, has experienced relatively limited exploitation and development of its ICH over the past decade. Given its rich human resources and diverse production methods, there is a pressing need to strengthen and enhance the exploration of ICH in this region. Tourism is the product of people’s spiritual life, and it is also meant to realize the effective interaction of the originality, authenticity protection, visual display and participatory experience. Only when the effective combination of reasonable tourism mode and ICH resources is achieved can the complementary development of the two be truly realized. Among them, the development of A-level tourist attractions is not only the embodiment of a single tourism function, but more importantly, it is the cultivation of typical intangible cultural elements in the overall area through the cultivation of learning cultural tourism formats that tourists can perceive, thereby enriching the product formats of A-level tourist attractions, and realizing the sustainable development of the scenic spot and the protection of the authenticity of ICH.

Analysis of influencing factors

The emergence, development, preservation, and transmission of ICH are intricately linked to physical geography, humanistic, and socio-economic factors. Elements such as topography, geomorphology, climate, total population, economic development levels, and transportation significantly influence ICH1,2,18,19,20,24,25,38. By reviewing research on the factors affecting the spatial distribution of ICH and considering the specific conditions of the five northwestern provinces, twelve factors were identified across three categories: humanistic, natural environment, and socio-economics.

Macro-analysis of influencing factors

Using Geodetector, the determinant values for the twelve influencing factors were derived, as presented in Table 2. From 2006 to 2023, several factors demonstrated a significant impact on the distribution of ICH in the Northwestern China, including the number of national-level inheritors (X2), the number of A-grade tourist attractions (X6), permanent residents’ population (X10), highway mileage (X12), and GDP (X9). Notably, permanent residents’ population (X10) and highway mileage (X12) exhibited a continuous effect, while the number of A-grade tourist attractions (X6) displayed an intermittent effect on the distribution of ICH. Among the rest of the factors, the number of national-level inheritors (X2) also has a high influence, but it is not significant. On the whole, humanistic and socio-economic factors have a stronger influence than physical geography factors on the spatial distribution of ICH in Northwestern China from 2006 to 2023. The more national inheritors there are, the stronger the inheritance and protection of the ICH in the region, which has a great relationship with the attributes of the ICH itself. The higher the proportion of ethnic minorities, the more prominent the ethnic characteristics in the region, and more attention is paid to the inheritance and protection of ICH related to ethnic minorities. The permanent population is one of the main indicators of economic development in a region, and plays an important role in the inheritance and serial protection of ICH, which is related to the development of ICH from life, and also depends on the systematic protection of the overall living environment and production environment of the heritage site.

Table 2 Influencing factors and its determinant values.
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Specific analysis of influencing factors

Specifically, in the realm of humanistic factors, ICH tends to be more concentrated in areas with a higher number of people. The influence of the number of national-level inheritors (X2) on ICH remains consistently high (q > 0.36). The more national inheritors there are, the stronger the inheritance and protection of the ICH in the region, which has a great relationship with the attributes of the ICH itself. Besides, the higher the proportion of ethnic minorities, the more prominent the ethnic characteristics in the region, and more attention is paid to the inheritance and protection of ICH related to ethnic minorities.

Regarding physical geography factors, ICH is predominantly found in areas with appealing environments and favorable or unique natural conditions. The number of A-grade tourist attractions (X6) consistently has a significant and high effect on the distribution of ICH (q > 0.33). Historically, humans have favored regions with better natural conditions for settlement and development, and A-class tourist attractions typically provide superior living and development conditions compared to neighboring areas. These attractions are conducive to the production of ICH and facilitate a positive cycle of protection, development, and inheritance through interactions with residents and tourists.

In terms of socio-economic factors, ICH is predominantly concentrated in areas with higher levels of economic development, population density, and convenient transportation. Permanent residents’ population (X10) and highway mileage (X12) consistently exert a high and significant influence on the distribution of ICH, with the degree of influence fluctuating but gradually increasing. By 2023, the q-value for the permanent residents’ population (X10) reaches 0.489, while the q-value for highway mileage (X12) stands at 0.311. Additionally, the influence of GDP (X9) remains substantial (q > 0.4), demonstrating a progressively significant effect, ultimately becoming the second most important factor affecting the spatial distribution of ICH by 2023. Economic development and population agglomeration facilitate the generation, development, and transmission of ICH. The permanent population serves as one of the main indicators of economic development in a region and plays a pivotal role in the inheritance and serial protection of ICH. This is related to the evolution of ICH from daily life and also depends on the systematic protection of the overall living and production environments of the heritage site. Transportation plays a crucial role in the inheritance and development of ICH, as it is facilitates the “going out” and “coming in” of culture. Especially in the Northwest region, where, prior to economic development in some areas, people’s lives were relatively closed and restricted, the development of transportation has enhanced the movement of people and trade, which in turn has facilitated the dissemination and interaction of culture. Furthermore, economic development promotes changes in lifestyle and production methods, which in turn squr the development of programs that are closely related to daily life, such as traditional skills. At the same time, after satisfying their material needs, people’s spiritual needs will gradually increase. Consequently, the region will pay more attention to cultural construction and increase investments to promote the prosperity the prosperity and development of ICH.

Interaction analysis of influencing factors

The results of the interaction detector indicate that the interplay among humanistic, physical geography, and socio-economic factors is primarily characterized by “Enhance, nonlinear-” and “Enhance, bi-,” meaning that the interaction between any two factors exceeds the influence of individual factors.As illustrated in Fig. 8:

Fig. 8
figure 8

Results of interaction between different Influencing factors. for 2010, 2015, 2020, and 2023.

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Firstly, in 2010, the factors exhibiting the strongest interaction were the number of national-level inheritors (X2) and the number of A-class tourist attractions (X6). During this period, the cultural industry had not yet vigorously emerged, and most of the cultural inheritance and dissemination depended on the inheritors. Meanwhile, the economy is the basis for the dissemination and development of culture. Regions with a better level of development will have more funds to invest in the training of inheritors, thus accelerating the inheritance and development of ICH.

Secondly, in 2015, the factors with the most significant interaction included permanent residents’ population (X10), GDP (X9), and the number of A-class tourist attractions (X6). With the economic and social development, people pay more attention to the needs of spiritual life. whether in urban development or tourist attractions, local culture is increasingly relied upon to create cultural products that highlight unique characteristics and attract crowds. This, in turn, promotes the spread and development of ICH.

Thirdiy, in 2020, the strongest interaction was observed between permanent residents’ population (X10) and the number of national-level inheritors (X2). During this period, the nation has launched a large-scale craze for ICH dissemination and protection, and more and more people have joined in the inheritance of ICH. At the same time, people’s communication and interaction with the inheritors also gradually increased, and the attention to and consumption of culture greatly promoted the development of ICH.

Finally, in 2023, the factors demonstrating the strongest interaction were permanent residents’ population (X10), the number of national-level inheritors (X2), and GDP (X9). At the later stage of the inheritance and protection of ICH, it is not only the creation of cultural products and the development of cultural industries, but also the protection of the ecological environment in which it is located. Therefore, on the basis of people’s inheritance and interaction, increasing the investment, construction and protection of its ecological environment is more favorable to the long-term development of ICH.

It is evident that the factors exhibiting stronger interactions are consistently tied to human elements. As the creators of ICH, people play a crucial role in its protection and inheritance, profoundly influencing the formation and spatial distribution of ICH24. Simultaneously, the process of inheriting ICH requires a synergistic relationship between inheritors and tourism. By leveraging tourism development as a medium, inheritors can effectively facilitate the sustainable development of ICH. This approach not only supports the regional economy but also enables comprehensive protection and transmission of ICH.

Influencing factors on the Spatial distribution of each type of ICH

The conditions for the creation, protection, and transmission of different types of ICH vary to some extent. In this study, Geodetector was utilized to calculate the determinant values for twelve influencing factors associated with each type of ICH in 2023. The results indicate significant differences in the impact of various factors on ICH. These findings are summarized in Table 2:

Traditional skill and traditional theatres are significantly influenced by physical geography factors, as well as the proportion of minorities. Traditional fine arts and Quyi are primarily affected by the permanent residents’ population. Traditional dance and folk literature are strongly influenced by highway mileage. Traditional sports, entertainment, and acrobatics are mainly shaped by the number of national-level inheritors and the number of A-class tourist attractions. Traditional medicine and folk customs are significantly impacted by urbanization levels, as well as by the number of A-class tourist attractions and highway mileage, respectively. Though traditional music is influenced by the number of national-level inheritors, permanent residents’ population, and GDP, the effects of the twelve factors on it are not highly significant. Therefore, the scope of these factors should be expanded for further exploration.

Traditional skill, traditional theatre, traditional fine arts, Quyi, and traditional dance all exhibit a correlation with the number of A-class tourist attractions, suggesting that their development and influence are significantly enhanced through tourism. Additionally, traditional fine arts, Quyi, folk literature, and traditional medicine show a strong relationship with GDP, indicating that they still require regional investment to support their inheritance and development.

Discussion

The ICH is a vital component of the national cultural heritage system. As a form of “living” cultural heritage, it offers diversity and flexibility in its preservation, transmission, and development compared to other cultural forms. This study provides recommendations for the protection and development of ICH in the Northwestern China from the perspective of sustainable development:

  • 1. The uneven distribution of ICH in the Northwestern China region is closely linked to regional development. It is essential to systematically protect the environments upon which ICH relies, taking into account the broader economic context. For example, for economically underdeveloped regions with limited transportation, such as southern Xinjiang and western Qinghai, increased financial investment is crucial, focusing on several key areas: (1) Strengthen the construction of transportation infrastructure, relying on the strong radiation effect of the transportation network to provide development opportunities for ICH. (2) Investment in tourism should be prioritized to foster the growth of culture and tourism industries, improving the economic viability of ICH and promoting a virtuous cycle between culture and tourism.

  • 2. Different types of ICH possess distinct conditions for existence and development, necessitating diversified initiatives for their protection. Based on the current development landscape, traditional skill, folk customs, traditional fine arts, and traditional music are abundant and highly experiential, positioning them as key candidates for cultural tourism development in Northwestern China. So, diversified tourism can be developed according to different geographical conditions10,41. Conversely, forms such as Quyi, traditional sports, entertainment and acrobatics, traditional medicine, and traditional theatre are less prevalent, requiring enhanced protection and cultural excavation, especially in the ecological environment.

The protection of ICH has been a hot topic of international discussion, and has shifted from the single protection of the ICH proper to the integrated protection of the cultural ecological environment of the region where the heritage is located. According to the theory of cultural ecology, Rodolphe Stavenha proposes that only by inheriting and developing in a specific cultural ecosystem and focusing on its cultural ecology can ICH evolve and continuously adapt to the changing social environment24. Therefore, we should pay attention to its social and natural ecology so that it can lay a solid foundation for preserving the authenticity of ICH22,27. This study uses quantitative research methods to provide a typical case study on the spatial distribution characteristics and influencing factors of ICH from the concept of cultural ecological conservation, which enriches the theoretical system on the spatial differences of ICH and also provides a replicable methodological framework for similar research globally. In the spatio-temporal analysis, in addition to analyzing the spatial distribution of ICH in Northwest China on the timeline and at the time point, this study also explores the changes in the spatial distribution of ICH declared in Northwest China during different time periods with a time period of five years. Compared to most of the previous spatio-temporal analyses, this method provides a deeper and clearer analysis of the spatial developmental changes of ICH. Besides, the system of indicators of impact factors also needs to be verified in regions or countries with different scales and cultural backgrounds to explore their universality and differences, so as to improve the applicability of the research method and the scientificity of the research process.

Conclusion

Utilizing the spatial analysis and Geodetector methods, this study examines the typological structure, spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of ICH in Northwestern China, along with the factors influencing these patterns. The conclusions are as follows:

  • (1) Between 2006 and 2023, the number of provincial-level and above ICH declared in Northwestern China shows a gradual decline, except for Ningxia. All categories, except traditional medicine, display a similar fluctuating downward trend. The search of ICH has almost been completed in Northwestern China, and the safeguarding of ICH everywhere needs to shift from search to development and cultural and ecological preservation.

  • (2) The spatial distribution of ICH in the northwest region has obvious clustering characteristics, the distribution pattern has evolved from a “single point with two nuclei” to a “multiple point with two nuclei”, showing two high-density core areas, along with five sub-high-density core areas. These core zones are the key areas for developing cultural tourism in the future. In terms of specific types, traditional skills exhibit the highest level of aggregation, while traditional sports, entertainment and acrobatics show the lowest degree of aggregation. Different types of ICH are clustered in their respective suitable cultural ecological spaces. Subsequently, the optimal cultural ecological conditions required for each type of ICH can be further explored to enhance the effectiveness of the protection of ICH and promote sustainable development.

  • (3) The present spatial distribution of ICH is influenced by a combination of factors. Humanistic and socio-economic factors exert a stronger influence on the spatial distribution of ICH in Northwestern China than physical geography factors. All intangible culture is created by people and develops, flourishes or declines as society develops and changes. Therefore, maintaining the sustainability of ICH requires focusing on the sustainability of the bearers and the suitability of the socio-economic environment.